Leibniz's Critique of Cartesian Philosophy: A Comparative Analysis

Comparison with Leibniz

René Descartes, considered the father of modern philosophy due to his immense influence on subsequent knowledge, employed a destructive method to arrive at truth. However, Leibniz offered a critique of Cartesian philosophy, attempting to resolve the dichotomy between res extensa (extended substance) and res cogitans (thinking substance) raised by Descartes.

Leibniz replaced the Cartesian mechanistic dynamism and substance with his concept of monads—simple, indivisible, and independent substances. These monads, as diverse as reality itself, possess an internal energy that contrasts with Cartesian mechanism. Independent and unrelated to the outside, each monad has its own principle of action, independent of the external environment.

Given the monads' independence, the question arises of how they relate to body and soul. Leibniz proposed not a simple connection, but a pre-established harmony, orchestrated by God. This harmony extends to the rest of existence.

Regarding human freedom within the monad theory, Leibniz distinguishes between the possible and the real. God, from a spectrum of possibilities, chose to create the most perfect reality, acting according to the principle of perfection. This implies that God's actions are determined not by necessity, but by a moral inclination towards perfection.

Human freedom operates under the same principles. Our actions, stemming from our monads, are not predetermined but arise from an internal principle, mirroring God's choice of the most perfect world.

Descartes's Context

The 17th century, Descartes's era, was marked by the Thirty Years' War within the Holy Roman Empire and conflicts involving England, France, Spain, and the Low Countries. Religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics was also prominent. The Peace of Westphalia eventually brought an end to the war.

The Netherlands, due to its neutrality and tolerance, became a haven for thinkers and intellectuals. Despite a deep economic crisis caused by war, climate, and declining trade, the 17th century experienced a cultural flourishing, with the rise of Baroque art and scientific advancements.

Arabic numerals, logarithmic and differential calculus, and the contributions of figures like Da Vinci, Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo fostered a modern, heliocentric view of the universe.

Descartes's thought was influenced by several intellectual currents:

• Scholasticism: Descartes's metaphysics and anthropology drew upon scholastic concepts like God and the soul.
• St. Augustine: Augustine's methodical doubt and concept of innate ideas influenced Descartes's method and his belief in innate ideas.
• Scientific Progress: The era's scientific advancements, particularly Galileo's work, encouraged Descartes to adopt a method that sought clear evidence and unquestionable truths.