Latin American Independence: Causes, Process, Leaders

The people, mostly *Criollos*, demanded that these meetings be open, not exclusively for colonial authorities. The establishment of the juntas marked the beginning of the movement towards independence.

Causes of Independence

• Latin American cities experienced significant growth, particularly large commercial centers and cities housing government seats or courts of law.
• The urban middle class embraced liberal ideas discussed in their newspapers. They were inspired by the French Revolution and the independence of the United States, admiring these nations while viewing Spain as a symbol of absolutism.
• *Criollos* felt marginalized by colonial authorities, as they were denied the most important government positions.
• Great Britain sought access to the Ibero-American market for its products.

The Independence Process

The independence process was highly violent, coinciding with King Fernando VII's return to the throne in 1814. The king refused any agreement that would imply a change in Spain's overseas empire.

Significant social revolts erupted in Mexico. Two priests, Morelos and Hidalgo, led indigenous uprisings but were executed by the new *Criollo* authorities.

Two major rebellion centers emerged in South America: New Granada and Buenos Aires, led by Bolívar and San Martín. The two leaders met in Peru, holding the Guayaquil Conference. Afterward, San Martín withdrew, ceding control to Bolívar. Both leaders envisioned a unified South American state.

The Battle of Ayacucho, won by Bolívar's forces under General Antonio José de Sucre, secured Peru's independence. Spain lost its last colonial stronghold.

Consequences of Independence

• Social consequences were uneven. *Criollos* benefited most, gaining desired political power and consolidating economic influence. Black slaves also benefited, as slavery was abolished in most nations. However, the rest of the population, particularly indigenous peoples, continued to face social and economic discrimination.
• The new nations adopted republican governments, but new conflicts prolonged violence. Military leaders sought to control politicians, leading to *caudillismo* and frequent coups.
• Latin America no longer depended economically on Spain, but on England and the U.S.

Leaders of Ibero-American Independence

• Bolívar was a wealthy *Criollo* landowner from Venezuela. He likened Spain's control of America to absolutism and dreamed of a unified American nation, *Gran Colombia*, a goal he never fully achieved.
• San Martín, born in Argentina to Spanish parents, fought for 22 years in the War of Independence. He and his troops crossed the Andes from Argentina to Chile, liberating Peru. He then ceded control to Bolívar and traveled to London.