Latin American Independence: Key Movements and Figures

Roots of Revolution: Spain's Decline and Napoleonic Influence

Among the causes of the revolutionary crisis that matured from 1808 to 1810, the decline of Spain under the inept King Charles IV was certainly a major one. In Europe, Napoleon's expansion of French power significantly impacted Spain, leading to its effective satellite status. In 1807, French troops moved through Spain to invade Portugal.

By early 1810, French victory seemed inevitable. The juntas previously in charge of Spain dissolved and named the Cortes as their ruler. Confident that Napoleon's invincible armies would crush all opposition, some Creole leaders prepared to seize power. The imminent fall of Cadiz then ignited a conflict between patriots and royalists.

Simón Bolívar and Venezuelan Independence

Simón Bolívar became involved in conspiratorial activities to free Venezuela, and in 1811, a congress proclaimed the country’s independence. Fighting had already broken out between patriots and royalists, with the patriot army under the command of Francisco de Miranda. Napoleon's fall in 1814 brought Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne.

On the eve of the decisive campaign of 1819, Bolívar summoned a congress to Angostura, which vested him with dictatorial powers. However, the battle still had to be won. After a strategic maneuver, he surprised and defeated the Royalist army in Bogotá.

Independence in the Southern Cone: La Plata and San Martín

In May 1810, a secret patriot society forced the viceroy to summon a Congress, which then deposed him to establish a junta in the name of Ferdinand. This junta subdued the interior provinces but could not take control over Uruguay and Paraguay. In 1813, a national assembly named the country the United Provinces of La Plata; a declaration of independence followed in 1816.

In 1817, the army began its march to Santiago. In June 1821, the Spanish army evacuated Lima and retreated towards the Andes. José de San Martín withdrew in 1822.

Brazil's Path to Independence

In 1815, Prince João elevated Brazil to the legal status of a kingdom. In 1820, a revolution erupted in Portugal, demanding the immediate return of Dom João to Lisbon and the restoration of the Portuguese commercial monopoly. He accepted but left his son Dom Pedro as regent of Brazil. In December 1822, Dom Pedro was proclaimed Constitutional Emperor of Brazil, bringing the independence process to a close.

Mexican Independence Movement

In 1808, news of Napoleon’s capture of King Charles IV and Ferdinand VII provoked intense maneuvers among Mexican elites to seize power. The peasantry and working class, led by figures like Miguel Hidalgo, formed a spearhead for revolt. The capture of Guanajuato on September 28 was followed by the killing of hundreds of Spaniards.

Even after Hidalgo's death, the insurrection he had set in motion did not cease. The movement was taken over by new leaders who changed tactics to guerrilla warfare. This new approach led to the exhaustion of the enemy.