Late Medieval Spain: Political and Economic Transformations

The First Nuclei of Resistance

United Astur-Leones

In 718, Don Pelayo was elected king. In 722, the victory of Covadonga was achieved.

United Pamplona

Around the 9th century, Sancho I strengthened the new kingdom, extending it southward. His dynasty established the County of Aragon in 970.

County of Aragon

In the central Pyrenees, the counties of Aragon, Ribagorza, and Sobrarbe were formed. From 970, it was linked to Pamplona.

Catalan Counties

Located in the eastern Pyrenees, these counties were related to the Carolingian monarchy in the 8th and 9th centuries.

Main Stages of the Reconquest

8th-10th Centuries

Christian advances were limited to occupying nearly empty territories, such as the Duero basin and the northern Ebro.

11th and First Half of the 12th Century

The 11th century marked the true beginning of the Reconquista. There was a radical change in the balance of power between Christians and Muslims. The most significant events include:

• Alfonso VI, king of Castile-León, conquered the Kingdom of Toledo in 1085.
• The arrival of the Almoravids caused a slowdown.
• The kings of Aragon expanded into the middle Ebro Valley.
• In the mid-12th century, amid the Almoravid decline, a great offensive began, ending in the Tagus Valley and the eastern sector of the Ebro Valley.

Second Half of the 12th Century

The Almohad apogee brought new setbacks. Progress was limited to the upper courses of the Turia and Jucar rivers, and the upper Guadiana. Military orders were established, and two treaties were signed between the major Christian powers to define future conquests.

13th Century

With the growing Almohad influence, the Christian kingdoms (Castile, Aragon, and Navarre) united in the crusade, along with foreign military orders and crusaders. The clash occurred at the Navas de Tolosa.

Portugal was the first to complete its progress between 1230 and 1239.

Political Organization and Institutions in the Late Middle Ages

The Kingdom of Castile

State Level

There was a definitive merger of the courts of Castile and León, and two new institutions emerged: the Royal Council and the Audience.

Local Level

There was growing intervention by the monarchy in the municipalities to control them. With Alfonso XI, open councils were replaced with regimientos. The main instrument of the monarchy's control over the municipalities was the corregidor. Initially, it was an official sent by the king to solve serious problems, but by the late 15th century, it became a permanent representative of the crown in the main municipalities.

The Crown of Aragon

Its political structure differed from Castile in two essential aspects:

• It was a confederation of territories, each with its own laws and institutions.
• The relationship between rulers and governed remained within the feudal concept of a pact between the lord and his vassals.

Institutions

• Viceroyalties: Represented the king in the territories where he did not reside, acting on his behalf.
• Courts: Defended the interests of their members: nobility, clergy, and high bourgeoisie.
• Deputations: The General Deputation or Generalitat of Catalonia, the Deputation of the Kingdom of Aragon, and the Deputation of the Kingdom of Valencia.
• Justice of Aragon: Its function was to defend the laws and customs of Aragon.

Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis

Demographic Crisis

The Black Death arrived in 1348. Its effects were multiplied by impacting already weakened populations, especially the poorest.

Economic Crisis

Occurred due to low agricultural yields, difficulty importing wheat, many failed crop cycles, and subsistence crises.

Political Crisis: Civil Wars

• Civil War of Castile (1366-1369)
• Civil Wars in Navarre (1451)
• Civil War in Catalonia (1462-1472)

Expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean

The monarchs undertook a major expansion policy in the Mediterranean. The Crown of Aragon included the kingdoms of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, and the conquest of Mallorca. The conquest of Valencia and the Balearic Islands by James I allowed for later expansion. Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples were incorporated into the Crown of Aragon. This expansion policy supported active international trade. The Turkish advance and the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 hastened the decline of Mediterranean trade, while new Atlantic routes emerged.