Late Medieval Europe: Crisis and Transformation

ITEM 4 Medieval: The Crisis of the 14th and 15th Centuries

1. Introduction

Beginning in the late 13th century, European society faced a major crisis due to hunger, disease, and wars. The 14th century saw the start of recovery, with population growth, trade development, and the emergence of cities. The last two centuries of the Middle Ages (14th and 15th) brought significant changes:

• Political: Disappearance of serfdom, birth of nationality, and growth of royal authority.
• Cultural: Emergence of secular thought, leading to religious clashes, emphasis on the individual, and new ideologies like humanism and reason.

The Iberian Peninsula experienced similar trends, including the first universities, development of vernacular literature, and Gothic and Mudéjar art.

2. Demographic, Economic, and Social Crisis

Demographics

Population growth in Christian kingdoms halted in the 14th century due to hunger and disease. This was caused by:

• Landowners shifting from subsistence farming to marketable products (wine, oil, wool).
• Poor harvests due to weather.
• The Black Death in 1348, causing numerous deaths over the next century.
• Frequent wars, looting, and peasant revolts.

These issues were most intense in the Crown of Aragon.

Economy

The rural economy faced a serious crisis, with farm abandonment as people migrated to cities. This led to more land for migratory sheep farming, boosting wool production and export to the Netherlands. Trade routes developed in the Mediterranean (Crown of Aragon) and the Cantabrian Sea (Castile), along with fairs and markets. Products like wine, rice, sugarcane, oil, and wool were cultivated for export.

Society

The Crisis of the Rural Economy

Nobles increased taxes due to lower production, appropriated royal lands, and established Mayorazgo, a privilege where land could only be inherited by the eldest son. Other social conflicts included anti-Jewish sentiment and peasant revolts like the Hermandino Movement in Galicia and the Remensa peasants in Catalonia.

3. Political Aspects

A. Medieval Monarchy, Authoritarianism, and Institutions

The King

The king was a war chief, advised by a privy council and the royal court. This led to an authoritarian monarchy, opposed by nobles and cities seeking a more pact-based system. The growth of cities led to the creation of the Royal Council and the Cortes, representing the people. Unified legislation was inspired by Roman law, with Alfonso X's Book of Laws and Alfonso XI's Management of Alcalá. The state grew stronger with border controls, a standing army, a bureaucratized administration, treasury reforms, judicial reforms (Audiencia), and royal control over municipalities through the Corregidor.

B. The Crown of Aragon: Mediterranean Expansion

Domestic Policy

1. Conflict between authoritarian and pactist factions, leading to the Generalitat.
2. Rise of the Trastámara dynasty.
3. Civil war won by the monarchy with the support of the bourgeoisie and peasants.

Foreign Policy

Trade with Italy, North Africa, and the East flourished, centered in Barcelona. This was facilitated by the conquests of Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, Naples, the Duchy of Athens, and some North African kingdoms.

C. The Crowns of Castile and Portugal: Atlantic Routes

Domestic Policy

1. Conflict between authoritarian and pactist factions.
2. Murder of Pedro I the Cruel by his brother Henry II of Trastámara.
3. Attempt to incorporate Portugal, ending with the Battle of Aljubarrota.
4. Civil war after Henry IV's death, with Isabella emerging victorious.

Foreign Policy

Interest in the Atlantic for commercial purposes, including control of the Strait of Gibraltar. Southern expansion was hindered by internal problems and competition from Portugal, which took Tangier, Madeira, and the Azores. Castile conquered the Canary Islands under Ferdinand and Isabella.