Language Evolution and Ancient Political Systems

Latin and Greek: Inflected Languages and Their Legacy

Understanding Inflected Languages

Latin and Greek are **inflected languages**, meaning they have the ability to vary the form of certain word classes (such as nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) to express different syntactic functions (like subject, direct object, or indirect object) or to indicate various grammatical relationships. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns is called **declension**, while the inflection of verbs is known as **conjugation**.

Classical Languages and Modern Technical Terminology

Classical Greek and Latin possess extensive resources for precisely describing the world around us. These languages have been instrumental in creating **technical terms** – new words formed to name novel concepts or discoveries emerging in science and technology today.

Patrimonial Words: Tracing Latin Roots

**Patrimonial words** originate from the Vulgar Latin spoken in Roman Hispania. They are the result of the evolution of a Latin word's stem, which has been altered over time following specific phonetic laws unique to each of the territories where various Romance languages developed.

Cultisms: Direct Borrowings from Antiquity

**Cultisms** are Greek or Latin words introduced into Romance languages by writers to fill lexical gaps. These words have undergone minimal phonetic changes, often retaining their original form with only slight modifications.

Doublets: Dual Descendants of Latin

**Doublets** occur when the same Latin word yields two derivatives in a Romance language: one evolving through Vulgar Latin (a patrimonial word) and another introduced as a cultism. For example, the Latin word calidus (meaning 'hot') can lead to both a patrimonial word and a cultism in a Romance language.

Latinisms: Enduring Phrases and Expressions

**Latinisms** are fixed combinations of words that reproduce a Latin sentence structure and convey a unified meaning. Today, we encounter a multitude of Latin expressions in newspapers, magazines, and everyday language.

Ancient Governance: Forms and Institutions in Athens, Sparta, and Rome

Forms of Government in Ancient Athens

• Aristocratic Oligarchy: Political power was exercised by a few aristocratic families.
• Tyranny: A single-member government, led by an aristocrat who had seized power by force or through popular promises.
• Democracy: Political power resided with the assembled citizens.

Governing Bodies and Judicial System in Athens

Key institutions in Athenian governance included:

• Ecclesia: The assembly of citizens over 20 years of age. Its duties included appointing magistrates, passing laws, deciding on war and peace, and overseeing officials.
• Boule (Council of 500): A 500-member board, formed by citizens over 30 years old, selected by lot. Members served for one year.
• Heliaia: An institution that brought together the people's courts of justice. Its members were chosen by lot each year from among the citizens.

Spartan Governance: A Unique System

In Sparta, an aristocratic oligarchy persisted, characterized by a unique governmental structure:

• Diarchy: The supreme power of government and the army was held by two kings.
• Gerousia: A council of elders, consisting of 28 life members over 60 years of age, who served alongside the two kings.
• Ephors: Five annually elected magistrates responsible for administrative, judicial, and military oversight, holding significant political power.

Roman Republican Governance: Assemblies, Senate, and Magistrates

The Roman Republic featured a complex system of governance:

• Assemblies (Comitia): Meetings where citizens exercised their right to participate in the management of the state, voting on laws and electing magistrates.
• The Senate: Composed of all senators, typically appointed by censors. The Senate ratified laws, managed state finances, controlled magistrates, and was a very important organ during the Republican era.
• Magistrates: Various elected officials, with the **Consulate** being the most important political office, holding supreme executive and military authority.