Language Communication Fundamentals: Text, Discourse, Cohesion, and Functions

Understanding Text and Discourse

Key Definitions in Communication

• Text: Refers to a written or taped record of a piece of communication.
• Discourse: Refers to a piece of communication in context.
• Text Analysis: The study of the formal linguistic devices that distinguish a text from random sentences.
• Discourse Analysis: The study of text-forming with reference to the purposes and functions for which the discourse was produced, and how users communicate in context.

Essential Language Functions

• Transactional Language: Used to obtain goods and services.
• Interpersonal Language: Used for socializing and building relationships.
• Aesthetic Function: Focuses on the beauty or form of language.

Modes of Communication

Both spoken and written language are fundamental modes used to communicate effectively.

Cohesion and Coherence in Communication

Cohesion: Connecting Ideas

Cohesion is a property of the text itself, describing how ideas and structures are connected to ensure clarity and flow.

Coherence: Internal Understanding

Coherence is an internal neurological process that we carry out, allowing us to make sense of a text based on our knowledge and understanding.

Key Cohesive Devices

Reference

Refers to elements within a text that point to other elements.

• Anaphoric Reference: Points backwards to something previously mentioned (e.g., "The cat was hungry. It meowed.").
• Cataphoric Reference: Points forwards, sometimes for dramatic effect, to something yet to be mentioned (e.g., "Here's the news: The market crashed.").

Types of Reference:

• Personal: Uses pronouns and determiners (e.g., he, she, it, their).
• Demonstrative: Uses determiners and adverbs (e.g., this, that, these, those, here, there).
  • This often refers to ideas or facts.
  • That often refers to objects or people.
• Comparative: Uses adjectives and adverbs to compare (e.g., "these seats and the other seats").

Substitution

Replacing a linguistic item with a placeholder.

• Nominal Substitution: Replaces a noun or noun phrase (e.g., "I need a pen. Do you have one?").
• Verbal Substitution: Replaces a verb or verb phrase (e.g., "Did you finish? Yes, I did.").
• Clausal Substitution: Replaces an entire clause (e.g., "Is it going to rain? I think so.").

Ellipsis

The omission of a structural element that is understood from the context.

• Nominal Ellipsis: Omission of a noun (e.g., "My kids are both here. Both [kids] are happy.").
• Verbal Ellipsis: Omission of a verb (e.g., "Have you been to Paris? Yes, I have [been to Paris].").
• Clausal Ellipsis: Omission of an entire clause, often shortening and altering the sentence (e.g., "Are you coming? Yes [I am coming].").

Conjunction

Words or phrases that join clauses or sentences, indicating a relationship between them.

• Adversative: Moderates or qualifies information (e.g., however, on the other hand).
• Additive: Adds information (e.g., and, furthermore).
• Temporal: Relates events in time (e.g., first, then, afterwards).
• Causal: Indicates cause and consequence (e.g., because, therefore, as a result).

Lexical Cohesion

Achieved when two words are related in terms of meaning.

Reiteration includes:

• Repetition: Repeating the same word (e.g., "The newspaper reported... the newspaper also stated...").
• Synonyms: Using words with similar meanings (e.g., slope, decline).
• Superordinate: Using a general term for a more specific one (e.g., pneumonia is an illness).
• General Word: Replacing a specific word with a more general one (e.g., "The car broke down. The thing was old.").

Communicative Functions of Language

Six Essential Elements of Communication

Effective communication requires six key elements:

1. Sender (Addresser)
2. Context
3. Message
4. Channel
5. Code
6. Receiver (Addressee)

Types of Communicative Functions

• Referential Function: To show things or facts, primarily to inform (e.g., news reports, scientific texts).
• Emotive Function: To express emotions, feelings, or attitudes of the sender (e.g., poems, advertisements, exclamations).
• Conative Function: To influence the receiver's behavior, often through imperative sentences (e.g., commands, requests, warnings).
• Phatic Function: To establish, maintain, or check contact and ensure the communication channel works (e.g., "Hello?", "Can you hear me?", emojis).
• Metalingual Function: To use language to talk about language itself, for learning or clarification (e.g., grammar lessons, definitions, a teacher explaining a word).
• Poetic Function: Focuses on the message for its own sake, emphasizing its aesthetic qualities or form (e.g., poetry, slogans like "fake hurts real").