Second Language Acquisition: Core Principles and Teaching Methods

Krashen's Monitor Model and Hypotheses

This section enumerates the five hypotheses comprising Krashen’s Monitor Model and discusses one of them.

The Five Hypotheses of the Monitor Model:

• The Acquisition-Learning Distinction
• The Natural Order Hypothesis
• The Monitor Hypothesis: Different Types of Learners
• The Input Hypothesis
• The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Krashen’s Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Krashen posits two distinct ways to learn a second language:

1. Acquisition: This happens naturally when we hear and understand the language. It is akin to how children learn their first language, requiring no conscious study of rules.

2. Learning: This occurs when we consciously study grammar and rules. It is a deliberate and conscious process.

Krashen believes acquisition is more important because it fosters fluent speech. He argues that learning does not transform into acquisition. Some individuals speak proficiently without studying rules, while others know rules but struggle to apply them in real conversations.

Defining Communicative Competence

This section defines communicative competence, outlines its components, and discusses the implications for language teachers.

Components of Communicative Competence

A. Communicative Competence includes:

• Linguistic Competence: Knowledge of the grammar, vocabulary, phonology, and semantics of a language. This includes phonological, orthographic, and orthoepic aspects.
• Sociolinguistic Competence: Understanding the sociocultural conditions of language use, including linguistic markers, social relations, politeness conventions, register differences, and dialect/accent.
• Pragmatic Competence: Encompasses discourse competence, functional competence, and strategic competence.

The key message for teachers is that language teaching should extend beyond grammar and vocabulary, addressing all facets of communicative competence. This implies that teachers should provide opportunities for authentic interaction, encourage adaptation to sociocultural contexts, and teach strategies that help students communicate effectively in various situations.

Developing Communicative Competence Through Activities

B. A dialogue chart activity encourages students to negotiate meaning, express preferences, and respond appropriately. This primarily develops:

1. Pragmatic Competence (Functional Competence): Students practice making suggestions and accepting/rejecting them appropriately.

2. Sociolinguistic Competence: They engage in turn-taking, which reflects natural conversational norms.

   • They practice politeness and register differences in responding to suggestions. This type of activity is crucial in language learning because it prepares students to communicate effectively in real-world situations.

Accuracy vs. Fluency in Language Learning

This section examines the concepts of accuracy and fluency, their differences, and their sequencing in a language program, relating them to the affective principle of risk-taking.

Focus on Accuracy or Fluency?

Activity A (Read and Speak) focuses on accuracy because it requires students to extract specific information from a text and answer questions with precise, correct responses. The goal is to reinforce grammatical structures and correct language use.

Activity B (Desert Island) focuses on fluency because it encourages students to express their thoughts and opinions freely. The emphasis is on communication rather than grammatical correctness, allowing for natural speech development.

Difference Between Accuracy and Fluency

Accuracy describes the learner’s use of grammar, vocabulary, and phonology, and the extent to which this is free from mistakes.

Fluency describes the learner’s ability to produce language smoothly, without undue hesitation or pauses, and to convey a message effectively.

Which Should Come First in a Language Program?

The order depends on the learners' level and goals:

• In early stages, accuracy is essential to build a strong foundation in grammar and vocabulary.
• As students progress, fluency should take priority, helping them develop confidence in real-life communication.
• In communicative approaches, fluency is often encouraged first, as it allows learners to take risks and use the language without fear of making mistakes.

Connection to Risk-Taking

Risk-taking is a key affective principle in language learning. When students focus on fluency (as in Activity B), they are encouraged to take risks by using the language without worrying too much about errors. This builds confidence and reduces anxiety, which is crucial for effective communication. If students are too focused on accuracy, they may hesitate to speak for fear of making mistakes, which can slow down their progress.

Three Ways to Learn a Foreign Language

Research identifies three main ways we learn a foreign language: acquisition, learning (focus on form), and interaction. Here are classroom activities for each:

• Acquisition: Listening to stories in the target language. The teacher tells a story using pictures and gestures. Students listen and try to understand without translating. This helps them learn naturally, similar to how children acquire their first language.
• Learning (Focus on Form): Doing grammar exercises. Students complete a grammar worksheet practicing past tense verbs. The teacher explains the rules, and students correct their mistakes. This helps them focus on the structure of the language.
• Interaction: Role-playing a conversation with a partner. Students work in pairs to act out a conversation, such as ordering food in a restaurant. They take turns playing different roles, practicing speaking and communicating in real situations.

Sources of Extrinsic Motivation

This section enumerates sources of extrinsic motivation influenced by teacher action and discusses one in detail.

Sources of Extrinsic Motivation Affected by Teacher Action:

• Competition
• Praise and Encouragement
• Rewards
• Classroom Environment

Discussion: Competition as Extrinsic Motivation

Learners are often motivated to perform their best not for the sake of learning itself, but to outperform opponents in a competition. Individual competition can be stressful for those who find losing humiliating or who consistently struggle with linguistic knowledge. If overused, it can negatively affect learners' willingness to cooperate and help each other.

However, if competition is not taken too seriously, and if scores are at least partly a result of chance (so anyone might win), positive motivational aspects are enhanced, and stress is lowered. Group contests generally yield better results than individual ones: they are often more enjoyable, less tense, and equally motivating.

Understanding Interlanguage

This section briefly discusses 'interlanguage,' a linguistic principle of language learning and teaching, and its major impact.

Interlanguage is the temporary language system that learners create when acquiring a second language. It is a dynamic mix of elements from their native language and the target language. Interlanguage evolves as learners improve, gradually approximating the target language.

Impact on Language Teaching and Learning:

• Teachers understand that errors are natural and a necessary part of the learning process.
• It highlights that learners progress step by step, moving from simpler to more complex structures.
• It supports the idea that fluency often precedes accuracy, meaning students should not overly worry about mistakes in the early stages of language production.

Error Correction Strategies

Teachers can respond to errors in different ways and at different times. Here are examples for four correction strategies based on 'correction axes':

Instant and Public Correction

Given immediately and in front of others. This is useful in educational or training settings, but it may be uncomfortable for some students.

Example: A student mispronounces a word during a class discussion. The teacher immediately says, "Actually, it's pronounced like this..." so that everyone can learn the correct pronunciation.

Instant and Private Correction

Given at the moment, but without others hearing or seeing it. This is useful when trying to avoid embarrassment.

Example: While walking around the classroom, the teacher hears a student making a grammar mistake during pair work. The teacher quietly leans in and corrects the mistake without others hearing.

Delayed and Public Correction

Provided later but shared with a group. This is useful for collective learning without directly singling out an individual.

Example: After a speaking activity, the teacher writes common mistakes on the board (without attributing them to specific students) and reviews them with the whole class.

Delayed and Private Correction

Given in a more personal and reflective setting, avoiding exposure and allowing for more detailed feedback.

Example: The teacher provides written feedback on a student's essay, highlighting mistakes and offering explanations for improvement without discussing them in front of others.

Principled Eclecticism and the Communicative Approach

This section explains principled eclecticism and details the main features and impact of the Communicative Approach.

Principled Eclecticism

Principled Eclecticism is an approach to language teaching that combines elements from various methods and theories, chosen based on the specific needs of the learning context. Instead of adhering to a single rigid method, teachers select techniques and strategies for their effectiveness and suitability for their students. This approach acknowledges that no single method is universally effective and that teaching should adapt to factors such as course objectives, students' learning styles, and available resources.

Chosen Method: The Communicative Approach (1970 - Present)

Main Features:

• Emphasizes real communication in authentic contexts.
• Encourages student interaction through activities such as role-playing, debates, and simulations.
• Integrates the four language skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
• Prioritizes fluency over grammatical accuracy in the early stages of learning.
• Uses authentic materials such as newspapers, videos, and real conversations.

Impact on Current Teaching Practice:

• Has influenced the development of approaches like Task-Based Learning.
• Has led to more dynamic and student-centered teaching.
• Has promoted the use of technology and interactive resources to enhance language practice.
• Has changed the teacher's role, making them more of a facilitator rather than the sole source of knowledge.

This approach remains highly relevant because it enables students to develop practical and real-life communication skills.