Landmark US Supreme Court Cases & Constitutional Principles

Key Supreme Court Cases

Roper v. Simmons: Death Penalty for Minors

The Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty for minors is unconstitutional. This decision considered the national consensus of state laws and international standards as a measure of evolving standards of decency.

Marbury v. Madison: Establishing Judicial Review

In Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court asserted its power of judicial review. Marbury argued that the Judiciary Act of 1789 granted the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to order the delivery of his commission. However, the Court found that this Act conflicted with Article III of the Constitution, which defines the Court's original jurisdiction. While Marbury had a right and a remedy, the Court ruled he must pursue it through lower courts, thereby establishing the principle of judicial review.

Martin v. Hunter's Lessee: Federal Appellate Jurisdiction

This case involved a land dispute where Virginia defied the Supreme Court. The Court affirmed its appellate jurisdiction over federal questions arising in state courts, emphasizing the supremacy of federal law and the necessity of judicial review of state court decisions to ensure uniformity across the United States.

Cooper v. Aaron: State Compliance with Supreme Court

The Supreme Court ruled that states must follow Supreme Court decisions. Arkansas's resistance to the desegregation order in Brown v. Board of Education was deemed unconstitutional. The Court reiterated that the Constitution is supreme, and the Supreme Court's interpretations are binding on all states. Critics of this decision often point to concerns about judicial supremacy and a perceived lack of checks and balances.

Federalism: Allocation of Power

Federalism refers to the allocation of power between the federal government and state governments.

Enumerated Powers of Congress

Powers enumerated in the Constitution, specifically Article I, Section 8, include:

• Regulating commerce
• Levying taxes
• Regulating coinage
• Establishing post offices and roads
• Declaring war
• Raising and supporting armies and a navy

The Necessary and Proper Clause (often called the "Elastic Clause") allows Congress to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, provided the end is legitimate and within the scope of the Constitution. Section 9 outlines specific limits on Congress's powers.

Implied Powers

Implied powers are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are considered "necessary" to exercise the enumerated powers. A prime example is the power to create a national bank, as affirmed in McCulloch v. Maryland.

State Powers: The Tenth Amendment

The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states any powers not delegated to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states. Examples include police powers, which encompass regulations for public safety, health, morals, and general welfare.

Allocation of Powers to Three Branches

The Constitution allocates powers among three distinct branches:

• Legislative Branch (Article I): Congress at the federal level, state legislatures at the state level.
• Executive Branch (Article II): The President and federal departments, governors and state departments.
• Judicial Branch (Article III): The Supreme Court and federal courts, state supreme courts and other state courts.

McCulloch v. Maryland: Implied Powers & Supremacy

In McCulloch v. Maryland, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress has the power to create a national bank, and states cannot tax it. This decision affirmed broad implied powers for Congress under the Necessary and Proper Clause and established the supremacy of federal law over state opposition, reinforcing that federal law is supreme.

Lochner v. New York: Economic Liberty & Due Process

The Lochner era marked a period where the Supreme Court placed significant constitutional limits on state police powers and federal labor regulations, primarily through the concept of economic liberty. This era is often characterized as a period of judicial overreach, where the Court used the right to contract to severely limit legislative powers.

Key Aspects of Lochner v. New York

• Historical Context (1905)

  • Mass industrialization in the U.S.
    • Emergence of an industrial urban working class.
    • Immigrants working in factories under dangerous and unhealthy conditions.
  • The legal system was perceived as lagging behind societal changes.

• Facts of the Case

  New York passed a labor regulation for bakers that limited their working hours and days.

• Holding

  The Court held that state police powers must be balanced with individual liberties granted by the Constitution.

  The statute was declared unconstitutional because its conflict with the Due Process Clause superseded concerns for public health and welfare.

  • The Court argued that the mere possible existence of a small amount of unhealthiness was not sufficient to warrant legislative interference with liberty, thereby limiting police power.
  • This decision involved an interference with the 14th Amendment:
    • The 14th Amendment protects the "liberty" of individuals.
      • Through Substantive Due Process, the Court used the clause ("shall not be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law") to identify a substantive liberty: the right to contract.
      • The right to contract was deemed a substantive liberty.
    • The New York statute was found to impede on this right to contract, rendering it unconstitutional.
      • The right of individuals to determine their own labor terms was considered part of the right to contract.
      • The statute limited their ability to choose their working hours.
  • Other concerns and motives, rooted in the historical context, also influenced the Court's decision.