Key Transformations of the Early Modern Age (1453–1789)

The Early Modern Age: Defining Characteristics

The Early Modern Age spanned from the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and concluded with the French Revolution in 1789. The transition from the previous era involved a slow, profound transformation across all levels: economic, social, political, and cultural.

Economic and Social Shifts

• Economic Changes: Significant growth occurred, marked by increased agricultural production, expansion of craftsmanship and trade, and the development of mercantile capitalism.
• Social Structure: The privileged estates remained the nobility and the clergy. However, the bourgeoisie gained considerable influence, particularly in urban centers.
• Urban Growth: Cities increased significantly in both number and size.

The Rise of the Modern State

Monarchs successfully reasserted their power over both the nobility and the bourgeoisie, leading to the establishment of authoritarian monarchies.

Characteristics of the Modern State

The modern state was defined by:

• Greater centralization of power through new governmental institutions.
• The employment of professional officials (bureaucracy).
• The creation of powerful, standing armies loyal to the monarchs.

Major Authoritarian Monarchies

Key examples of authoritarian monarchies included:

• Spanish Monarchy: Established by the Catholic Monarchs.
• Portuguese Monarchy: Pioneers in the search for new trade routes.
• French, English, and Russian Monarchies.

In contrast, Italy and Germany remained politically divided, often serving as battlegrounds for the more powerful monarchies. Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, the Ottoman and Russian Empires continued their expansion.

Cultural Transformation: Humanism and Innovation

The Humanist Movement

A pivotal new cultural movement emerged: Humanism. It was characterized by:

• The revival of Classical culture (Greek and Roman antiquity).
• Anthropocentrism (focus on humanity rather than divinity).
• Optimism, creativity, and a strong desire for knowledge.
• Emphasis on critical thinking.
• The increasing use of the vernacular languages.

Notable Humanists

Key figures of the Humanist movement included:

• Dante Alighieri
• Francesco Petrarch
• Giovanni Boccaccio
• Erasmus of Rotterdam
• Niccolò Machiavelli
• Thomas More

Scientific Advances

The era also saw significant scientific advances, most notably the invention of the printing press, which revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge.

The Renaissance Artistic Movement

The Renaissance, a new artistic style, emerged in Italy at the start of the Early Modern Age and subsequently spread across Europe.

Italian Renaissance Architecture

Italian architects emphasized harmony, simplicity, open spaces, and proportion. They consciously incorporated elements from Greek and Roman antiquity, such as columns, friezes, and semi-circular arches. The most important architect of this period was Filippo Brunelleschi.

Painting and Sculpture

In painting and sculpture, Italian artists sought idealism, serenity, and balance in their compositions. They focused on portraying the human body realistically and pioneered the use of perspective. The most important artists included Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael Sanzio.

Phases of the Italian Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance developed through several distinct phases:

• Trecento (14th Century): The first defining features of the style appeared.
• Quattrocento (15th Century): Florence served as the main artistic center.
• Cinquecento (First half of the 16th Century): Rome, alongside Venice, became the primary cultural center.
• Mannerism: Appeared in the second half of the 16th century, marking a transition away from High Renaissance ideals.

Renaissance Beyond Italy

The Renaissance manifested differently across Europe:

• Flemish School: Developed the oil painting technique (notably by Jan van Eyck).
• Germany: The most important artist was Albrecht Dürer.
• France: The defining architectural feature was the construction of elaborate châteaux (castles).