Key Philosophical Movements: Empiricism, Idealism, Positivism, Phenomenology, Existentialism

Empiricism: Foundations of Knowledge

Empiricism, often referred to as "English Empiricism," is a philosophical movement initiated by John Locke in the mid-seventeenth century as a response to Cartesian rationalism. It was further developed and carried to its logical conclusions by thinkers such as George Berkeley and David Hume in the eighteenth century. The main features of Empiricism include:

1. The origin and value of all human knowledge stem from experience.
2. Denial of the existence of innate ideas.
3. The sole criterion of truth is sensory evidence.
4. Human knowledge is inherently limited by experience.
5. The preferred model and method is that of experimental science, particularly induction.
6. Emphasis on the practical and utilitarian value of knowledge.

Idealism: Primacy of Thought

Idealism is a philosophical theory that gives priority to thought or consciousness over material reality. This conception was notably defended by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The most relevant features are:

1. The concept of Reason emerges from the search for a rationale to govern and unify humanity's destiny, benefiting individuals without sacrificing their independence and freedom.
2. In its historical development, Idealism progresses through a dialectic process that incorporates the past and reconciles contradictions.
3. Philosophy, once again systematically metaphysical, employs a new dialectic method and is positioned above science and religion.

Positivism: Science as Humanity's Guide

Emerging in the nineteenth century, Positivism aimed to adhere strictly to the facts of experience, modeling rationality on experimental science. Auguste Comte is recognized as its founder and chief representative. Key characteristics include:

• Proposing a new model of rationality, intending to remain within the domain of observable facts and scientific laws.
• Denial of metaphysics.
• Application of the natural science method not only to nature but also to the study of society.
• Belief that science is the guide of humanity and trust in infinite progress.
• From a moral point of view, it defends utilitarianism.
• From a political ideology, it is often associated with bourgeois conservatism.

Phenomenology: Describing Conscious Experience

Phenomenology is a philosophical movement founded by Edmund Husserl in the early twentieth century, reacting against historicism and vitalism. It proposed transforming philosophy into a rigorous "science of consciousness." It aims to describe the structures of experience as they are presented to consciousness, without recourse to external theories, deductions, or presuppositions. To achieve this, it proposes the "phenomenological method," which helps capture the "essence" of phenomena by progressively eliminating all preconceptions. This method involves:

1. Refraining from judging objects based on previous philosophical doctrines (epoche).
2. Bracketing the individual's subjective biases.

Key figures include Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, among others.

Existentialism: Freedom, Choice, and Anxiety

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany around 1930 and subsequently spread across Europe. It arose as a profound response to the crises of the two World Wars, addressing fundamental problems of religion, freedom, and human existence. Prominent authors include Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre. Its core tenet is that existence precedes essence, meaning humans first exist, then define themselves through their choices. This implies freedom and consciousness.

Key Themes:

• Freedom: Considered the fundamental human principle.
• Anxiety: Arises from the necessity of choice and the absence of fixed values to guide those choices.