Key Philosophical Concepts: From Popper to Singer

Learning from Mistakes: Popper and Kuhn

Science progresses not by proving theories right, but by recognizing when our understanding of reality is false. Scientists actively try to disprove their theories.

• Induction: If you observe that it rains every Thursday for four weeks, you might conclude that it always rains on Thursdays.
• Science aims to avoid the problem of induction.
• Scientists propose a hypothesis and then test it, seeking evidence that could falsify it. If falsified, the hypothesis is rejected.
• Kuhn: Argued that there are no objective facts waiting to be discovered. Progress occurs through "paradigm shifts," where existing frameworks of thought are overturned.

The Runaway Train and the Unwanted Fiddler

These thought experiments by Philippa Foot and Judith Jarvis Thomson explore moral dilemmas:

• Runaway Train: A train is heading towards five workers. You can divert it to another track with only one worker. Is it morally permissible to divert the train?
• Philippa Foot: Argued that saving five lives is acceptable, but actively sacrificing one to save others is not.
• Judith Jarvis Thomson: You are on a bridge with a large man. Pushing him onto the tracks would stop the train and save the five workers. Is this morally permissible?
• The Doctrine of Double Effect: It is acceptable to harm someone as a side effect of achieving a greater good, such as self-defense.
• Thomson's Violinist: A famous violinist needs a compatible blood type to survive. You are the only match, and doctors have connected you to him without your consent. Are you morally obligated to remain connected? Thomson uses this to argue that a woman who becomes pregnant despite using contraception is not morally obligated to carry the pregnancy to term.

Justice Through Ignorance: John Rawls

John Rawls explored how we should structure society and the state's role in our lives.

• The "Original Position": Imagine designing a better society without knowing your place in it.
• Rawls argued that individuals in this position would prioritize liberty and equality, leading to the principles of liberty and difference.
• He considered skills and intelligence as matters of luck, not inherent merit.

Can Computers Think? Turing and Searle

This section examines the debate on artificial intelligence:

• Searle's "Chinese Room": A thought experiment designed to show that computers, despite appearances, do not genuinely think.
• Turing's "Imitation Game" (Turing Test): A test to determine if a machine can exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from a human.
• Searle's Argument: Passing the Turing Test does not equate to understanding or genuine thought.

A Modern Gadfly: Peter Singer

Peter Singer's philosophy challenges our moral obligations:

• It is easier to empathize with someone suffering nearby than those far away, but distance does not diminish our moral responsibility.
• We have a moral obligation to positively impact the lives of others.
• Singer argues that euthanasia can be morally permissible in certain circumstances.
• Speciesism: Giving less importance to the interests of animals is a form of prejudice.
• Animals can suffer, and their suffering should be considered in our moral calculations.
• Singer advocates for vegetarianism as a moral imperative.