Key Philosophical Concepts Defined

Key Philosophical Concepts

This document provides concise definitions for a range of fundamental philosophical terms, from ancient Greek thought to modern theories. Each entry clarifies the meaning and context of essential concepts that shape our understanding of existence, knowledge, ethics, and society.

Humanism

The doctrine that places humanity at the center of all things, emphasizing human values, reason, and agency.

Idea

An intuited universal concept, existing in the mind, whether in the Platonic sense as an eternal form or in the modern sense as a mental construct.

Identity

The first principle of thought, often expressed as "A is A," signifying self-sameness and non-contradiction.

Image

A sensitive representation or reproduction of an object, often perceived through the senses or formed in the mind.

Imagination

A sensitive or internal sense power that forms new images and ideas not present to the senses.

Imperative (Kant)

In Kantian philosophy, a command or rule that designates an independent source of moral duty, such as the Categorical Imperative.

Unconscious (Leibniz)

As described by Leibniz, it refers to small, limited perceptions that do not fully reach the level of consciousness.

Indeterminism

The doctrine that denies the will is entirely subject to internal or external factors, thereby affirming freedom of choice.

Individuation

The process or existential condition by which something becomes a distinct individual entity, particularly in natural things.

Individualism

A tendency or doctrine that gives primacy to the individual, emphasizing self-reliance and personal liberty.

Individual

That which is undivided within itself and distinct or divided from the rest of its kind or environment.

Induction

A form of reasoning that moves from particular observations or instances to a universal generalization, as discussed by Aristotle.

Inference

A logical process by which one can derive a logical consequence from one or more premises.

Nativism

A philosophical position suggesting that certain concepts or abilities are innate or inborn. The original text also refers to it as a source of strong appetitive tendencies in animals.

Intelligible

That which can be understood or apprehended by the intellect, rather than by the senses.

Interaction

A reciprocal action or influence; a mutual effect between two or more entities.

Introspection

The process by which a subject observes and describes their own psychic phenomena or internal mental and emotional experiences.

Intuition

A form of direct knowledge or immediate apprehension of an object, often gained through a sense of connaturality or inherent connection.

Irascible

In classical philosophy, a portion of the appetite (or soul's desiring faculty) that is distinct from the concupiscible appetite, dealing with difficult goods or evils (e.g., courage, anger).

Natural Law

A theory or system of right or justice held to be common to all humans and derived from nature rather than from the rules of society; a natural law theory.

Judgment

A form of thought; the faculty of judging; the rectitude or correctness of a decision or opinion.

Secularism

The principle of separating governmental institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. It aims to base human relations autonomously, independent of religious considerations.

Lax or Loose (Morality)

A tendency to judge moral issues with excessive leniency or to interpret moral rules too broadly, leading to a lax or loose moral stance.

Legitimacy

The quality of being justifiable or rightful; pertaining to forms of intrinsic justification or validity.

Language

A structured set or system of signs, symbols, and rules used for communication.

Law

A system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Often understood as a permanent rule or principle.

Freedom

The power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint. In philosophy, it is often considered a fundamental property of the will.

Logic

The science of thought, reasoning, or inference, concerned with the principles of valid argumentation.

Logos

A fundamental concept in philosophy and theology, often translated as reason, word, or discourse, and regarded as the explanatory order of the universe.

Machiavellianism

A political philosophy derived from Niccolò Machiavelli, asserting that the political order is independent of morality and can be maintained through cunning and expediency.

Marxism

A social, political, and economic theory originated by Karl Marx, serving as the theoretical foundation for economic theory focused on class struggle and communism.

Maxim

A short, pithy statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct; a rule of behavior or principle of action.

Maieutics (Socrates)

The Socratic method of philosophical inquiry, which aims to help individuals "give birth" to their own ideas or knowledge, often referred to as the second part of his method, bringing truth to light.

Metaphysics

The branch of philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, including abstract concepts such as being, knowing, substance, cause, identity, time, and space. It is the science of being as such.

Myth

A traditional story, often involving supernatural beings or events, that explains a natural or social phenomenon, typically involving deities or heroes. It can be a fiction, fable, or allegorical narrative. Historically, it has served as a form of knowledge or understanding.

Monad (Leibniz)

In Leibniz's philosophy, a simple, indivisible, and fundamental substance that constitutes the ultimate elements of reality. They are described as energetic, incommunicable units, each reflecting the entire universe.

Morality

The principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior. It involves the study of moral standards and how they are imposed upon or guide the will.

Movement (Aristotle)

In Aristotelian philosophy, change or the process of transition from a state of potency to act, encompassing various forms of alteration in being.