Key Historical Milestones: Industrial Revolution & Spanish History

The Steam Engine's Impact on the Industrial Revolution

The steam engine, initially invented by Thomas Newcomen and significantly improved by James Watt, was a pivotal innovation. Its development directly led to the creation of railways and steamships, revolutionizing transportation. This advancement made transport:

• Faster
• Cheaper
• Capable of carrying heavier cargoes

Spread of the Industrial Revolution Across Europe

Britain served as the primary model for industrialization, with other European nations soon following its example. Many countries adopted industrial practices and enhanced their transport systems. Nations like Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Germany developed their own industries at varying stages. Notably, Spain did not participate in this initial wave of industrialization.

The Treaty of Fontainebleau and Its Consequences

In 1807, Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy of Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau with Napoleon Bonaparte. The initial intent was to form an alliance to invade and partition Portugal between France and Spain. However, French troops entering Spain under this pretext soon revealed a broader plan: the invasion of Spain itself. This French incursion sparked an uprising in Madrid on May 2, 1808, marking the beginning of the Spanish War of Independence. During this conflict, territories free from French occupation organized themselves into local governing bodies known as Juntas Provinciales.

The Liberal Triennium in Spain (1820-1823)

The uprising led by Rafael del Riego in 1820 successfully reestablished the Constitution of 1812 and the liberal achievements of the Cortes of Cádiz. This period, known as the Liberal Triennium, concluded when Ferdinand VII secured the support of the Holy Alliance, a coalition of absolutist regimes in Europe. An army, famously known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, entered Spain and restored absolutism.

Criollos and the Quest for Spanish American Independence

Criollos were descendants of Spanish colonists born in the Americas. Their desire for independence from Spain stemmed from several grievances:

• High taxation imposed by the Spanish Crown
• Lack of political representation in Spain
• Social marginalization within the colonial hierarchy

The liberal ideas emanating from the French Revolution further fueled their aspirations for self-governance.

Pacto de Ostende: A Political Alliance for Change

The Pacto de Ostende was an agreement signed by the Progressive Party and Republicans. Its primary objectives were to depose Queen Isabel II and establish a new parliament through universal suffrage.

Amadeo of Savoy: A Brief Reign in Spain

During Spain's Revolutionary Period, Amadeo of Savoy served as king within the framework of a democratic monarchy. His reign, however, was brief, lasting only two years. He faced significant opposition from various factions, including Republicans, sectors of the army, and supporters of the Bourbon dynasty, ultimately leading to his abdication.

Goya's Black Paintings: A Dark Artistic Period

Francisco Goya's Black Paintings refer to a series of fourteen murals he created on the walls of his house, the Quinta del Sordo, after suffering from a severe illness that left him deaf. These works are characterized by their dark themes and somber palette, reflecting his personal struggles and disillusionment. A prominent example is Saturno devorando a su hijo (Saturn Devouring His Son).