Key Historical Concepts: 18th & 19th Centuries

Understanding Key Historical Concepts: 18th & 19th Centuries

Ideological Tendencies Among Liberals

Liberalism in the 18th and 19th centuries encompassed diverse ideological tendencies. These included:

• Moderate Liberals: These individuals were typically monarchists who supported an electoral system based on censitary suffrage, meaning voting rights were restricted by property ownership or wealth.
• Radical Liberals: Known in Spain as Exaltados and later as Progresistas, some radical liberals were republicans and democrats. They advocated for universal suffrage, proposing a regime of unlimited freedoms and the suppression of religious intervention in civil life.

The American Civil War and Slavery

The American Civil War (1861-1865) was intrinsically linked to the issue of slavery. The Northern states sought to abolish slavery, while the Southern states vehemently opposed its cessation, leading to the outbreak of war. The Union (North) ultimately won the conflict. Following the war, President Abraham Lincoln, who founded the Republican Party, oversaw the abolition of slavery across the United States.

Elements Provoking the French Revolution of 1789

Several key elements combined to provoke the French Revolution in 1789:

• The liberal ideas of the Enlightenment, which promoted concepts of liberty, equality, and individual rights.
• The inspiring example of the United States' successful revolution and its establishment of a republic.
• Widespread inequality before the law, with privileges granted to the nobility and clergy while the Third Estate bore the brunt of taxation and lacked political representation.
• A severe economic crisis, exacerbated by poor harvests, rising food prices, and the monarchy's excessive spending.

Who Were the Sans-Culottes?

The Sans-Culottes were men from the lower classes in Paris, notably distinguished by their attire: they wore long trousers (pantalons) instead of the knee-breeches (culottes) favored by the aristocracy and bourgeoisie. They allied with the middle class and played a crucial role in the main events of the French Revolution. Their distinctive clothing became a symbolic uniform of the revolution itself.

Napoleon's Domestic Policy Reforms During the Napoleonic Empire

During the Napoleonic Empire, Napoleon Bonaparte implemented several significant domestic policy reforms:

• Creation of the Civil Code (also known as the Napoleonic Code), which standardized French law and influenced legal systems worldwide.
• Modernization of the education system, establishing lycées (secondary schools) and emphasizing meritocracy.
• Division of France into prefectures, a centralized administrative system that remains largely in place today.

Objectives of the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The Congress of Vienna, convened after the defeat of Napoleon, had several primary objectives:

• To restore absolutism under the new principle of legitimism, which asserted the divine right of monarchs and sought to return deposed royal families to their thrones.
• To create an alliance known as the Holy Alliance, proposed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia, aimed at upholding Christian values and suppressing revolutionary movements.
• To restore and re-establish the boundaries on the map of Europe, redrawing territories to create a balance of power and prevent future French expansion.

Characteristics of 19th-Century Nationalist Movements

19th-century nationalist movements were characterized by several key elements:

• A strong desire for self-rule and political independence for distinct national groups.
• A profound sense of belonging to a common people, often based on shared language, culture, history, or ethnicity.
• Underlying economic interests, as national unity was often seen as a means to foster economic growth and protect domestic industries.

Key Characteristics of Romanticism in Art and Culture

Romanticism, a prominent artistic and cultural movement of the 19th century, was characterized by:

• A strong focus on emotional aspects, emphasizing intense feelings, individualism, and subjective experience over rationalism.
• An exploration of aspects beyond day-to-day life, delving into the sublime, the mysterious, and the supernatural.
• The embrace of exoticism of distant countries and cultures, often romanticizing foreign lands and historical periods.
• Themes of fantasy, melancholy, history, and tragic or heroic situations, often expressed through dramatic narratives and vivid imagery.