Key Figures and Concepts of the Enlightenment and Revolutions

Political Philosophy and the Enlightenment

• Thomas Hobbes: English philosopher; social contract theory and equality in society.
• John Locke: Natural rights (Life, Liberty, Property).
• Voltaire: Advocate for freedom of religion and civil rights.
• Montesquieu: Separation of powers and checks and balances.
• Beccaria: Italian criminologist; opponent of torture.
• Montaigne: French writer; focused on the meaning of life through essays.

Economic Principles

• Adam Smith: Author of The Wealth of Nations.
• Self-Interest: Individuals working for their own benefit.
• Competition: Market force that improves product quality and pricing.
• Supply and Demand: High supply lowers prices; low supply raises prices.
• Capitalism: Economic system supporting a competitive business environment.

Government and Constitutional Structures

• Democracy: Government where power resides with the people.
• Federalism: Division of power between national and state governments.
• Legislative Branch: Congress (Senate for laws, House of Representatives for taxes).
• Executive Branch: Presidential power to veto, appoint judges, and sign laws.
• Judicial Branch: Supreme and lower courts responsible for interpreting laws.

Founding Figures

• Thomas Jefferson: Primary author of the Declaration of Independence.
• James Madison: Father of the Constitution and author of the Bill of Rights.
• Benjamin Franklin: Founding father, scientist, and statesman focused on education.
• Enlightened Despots: Catherine the Great, Frederick II, and Joseph II.

The French Revolution

• Old Regime: The political and social system of pre-revolutionary France.
• Estates-General: Assembly of representatives from all three estates.
• National Assembly: Body established to pass laws and reforms.
• Tennis Court Oath: Pledge to continue meeting until a new constitution was formed.
• Great Fear: A wave of senseless panic across the country.
• Émigrés: Nobles and others who fled France, seeking to restore the Old Regime.
• Sans-Culottes: Workers who demanded radical revolutionary change.
• Jacobins: Radical political organization led by figures like Marat.
• Robespierre: Leader of the Jacobins and the Committee of Public Safety.
• Reign of Terror: Period of dictatorial rule under Robespierre.

Napoleonic Era and Global Impact

• Battle of Trafalgar (1805): The only major naval battle lost by Napoleon.
• Continental System: Policy to prevent trade and communication with England.
• Scorched Earth Policy: Military tactic of burning fields and killing livestock.
• Latin American Social Hierarchy: Peninsulares (5%), Creoles (20%), Mestizos (7%), Mulattos (7%), Indians (56%), and Africans (6.4%).
• José de San Martín: Latin American liberator from Argentina.

Political Ideologies and Nationalism

• Conservative: Favored maintaining the status quo.
• Liberal: Favored increasing political power for elected parliaments.
• Radical: Favored drastic change to extend democracy.
• Nationalism: Loyalty to one's nation rather than a king or empire.
• Nation-State: A geopolitical entity defined by common culture and identity.
• American Revolutionary War (1776): Conflict involving French proxy support.