Key Ethical Theories and Thinkers

Character, Ethos, and Morality

Character: Developed through experience.

Ethos: Habit, custom.

Ethics: The theoretical and practical discipline concerning the inherent reality of human existence. It relates to individuals and their reflection on the meaning of their actions within the community. Ethics studies morality (certain behaviors) and what constitutes acceptable human actions. It encompasses theoretical, individual, and social dimensions, bridging moral theory and social practice.

Material and Formal Ethics

Material Ethics: Focuses on the purpose and consequences of actions based on criteria like goodness, pleasure, and utility.

Formal Ethics (Kant): Emphasizes the importance of intent over consequence. Kant argues that duty, not happiness, makes us worthy of happiness. He proposes a formal criterion for judging behavior: the possibility of universalization. For example, a doctor considers various criteria to choose the most appropriate course of action when delivering a difficult diagnosis.

Aristotle's View on Ethics and Virtue

Aristotle: Law defines morality by its universality, not necessity. Ethics is practical knowledge, essential for navigating life's circumstances. Moral law stems from experience, the constant practice that guides correct action.

Virtue: The means to achieving the supreme good, which is happiness. Happiness is the perfect realization of one's potential, requiring balance between reason and passions. It consists of:

• Intellectual Virtue (Contemplative Life): Leads to happiness.
• Practical Intelligence: Mastery of passions.

The Greatest Virtue: Balance or equilibrium.

Types of Virtues: Perfections that help us control our passions.

• Dianoetic Virtues: Intellectual virtues focused on achieving balance.
• Ethical Virtues (Character): Guide social interaction.

Zoon Politikon: The political animal, an inhabitant of the polis (city-state) with just laws that guarantee individual happiness and require good education.

Epicurus and the Pursuit of Pleasure

Epicurus: The supreme moral principle is the pursuit of pleasure (Hedonism). Tranquility of mind leads to happiness. Spiritual pleasures, which foster serenity (ataraxia), are most valuable. The ultimate goal is happiness. Pleasure is good, pain is evil. Love and friendship are the highest pleasures.

Utilitarianism and the Greatest Good

Utilitarianism: The ideological foundation of well-being. Morality aims to maximize happiness (pleasure) for the greatest number of beings. It provides a rational basis for decision-making and social reform, underpinning the welfare state and social programs. Key figures include Bentham, John Stuart Mill, James Mill, and Henry Sidgwick.

Bentham: Proposed an arithmetic calculation of pleasure. All pleasures are qualitatively equal, measured by intensity, duration, proximity, and certainty. Different people can compare pleasures to maximize total pleasure.

John Stuart Mill: Distinguished between higher and lower pleasures, arguing for qualitative differences. Experiencing both is necessary for understanding their distinction.

Act Utilitarianism (Bentham and James Mill): Considers only the direct consequences of an action to assess its morality.

Rule Utilitarianism (John Stuart Mill): Evaluates actions based on the consequences of applying a general rule (moral principle).