Key English Language Concepts for Learners

Mastering English Grammar & Vocabulary

English Tenses and Time Expressions

• Present Simple: Actions, habits, facts. (e.g., do/don't)
• Present Continuous: Actions happening now. (e.g., is/are + -ing)
• Present Perfect: Actions that started in the past and continue or have a result in the present. (e.g., have/has + past participle)
• Present Perfect Continuous: Actions that started in the past, continue up to the present, and emphasize duration. (e.g., have/has + been + -ing)
• Past Simple: Completed actions in the past. (e.g., -ed or irregular verbs)
• Past Continuous: Actions ongoing in the past. (e.g., I was working)
• Past Perfect: Actions completed before another past action. (e.g., I had worked)
• Past Perfect Continuous: Actions ongoing before another past action, emphasizing duration. (e.g., I had been working)
• Future Continuous: Long actions interrupted in the future. (e.g., I will be + -ing)
• Future Perfect: Actions completed before a specific time in the future. (e.g., will have + past participle)

Future Forms: Going To vs. Will

• Going To: Used for plans and intentions.
• Will: Used for predictions and opinions.

Habitual Actions and States

• Used To: For past habits or states that no longer exist.
  • I used to (affirmative)
  • I didn't use to (negative)
  • Did you use to? (interrogative)
• Be Used To: To be accustomed to something. (e.g., be used to + V-ing)
• Get Used To: To become accustomed to something. (e.g., get used to + V-ing)

Time Prepositions: For and Since

• For: Indicates a duration of time. (e.g., for two hours)
• Since: Indicates a starting point in time. (e.g., since Monday)

Relative Clauses and Pronouns

Defining Relative Clauses

Provide essential information that cannot be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. They answer "who" or "what."

• Pronouns: who (people), which (things), that (people/things)
• Example: She's the teacher who gives interesting lessons.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses

Provide additional, non-essential information. They are separated by commas.

• Example: My mother, who lives in Madrid, is 65 years old.

Key Relative Pronouns

• That / Who: For people.
• That / Which: For things.
• When: For time.
• Where: For places.
• Whom: For people (object of a verb or preposition). (e.g., the person whom I spoke about)
• Whose: For possession.

Common Confusions: Who's vs. Whose

• Who's: Contraction of "who is" or "who has." (e.g., Who's coming to the party?)
• Whose: Possessive pronoun, meaning "belonging to whom." (e.g., Whose book is this?)

Common English Prefixes

Prefix Meanings and Examples

• Anti- (against): anti-war, anti-learning
• Co- (together): cooperation, coeducational
• Mis- (wrongly): misprint, misbehave
• Out- (better than): outplay, outperform
• Over- (too much): overwork, overconfident
• Re- (do again): rewrite, retake
• Under- (not enough): underachieve, underestimate

Negative Prefixes

These prefixes often create the opposite meaning of a word:

• Un- (e.g., unusual)
• Dis- (e.g., dishonestly)
• Ir- (e.g., irresponsible)
• Im- (e.g., impossible)
• Il- (e.g., illegal)

English False Friends

Common Confusions for Spanish Speakers

Be aware of words that look similar in English and Spanish but have different meanings:

• Career: Professional path (not "university career" in general, but a specific field of study/work).
• Advised: Gave counsel or recommendations (not just "aconsejar").
• College: An institution of higher education (often part of a university, or a separate vocational school).
• Lectures: Formal talks given to students (not just "conferencia").
• Attend: To be present at an event (not just "asistir").
• Library: A place containing books for reading or borrowing (not "bibloteca").
• Realize: To become aware of something (not "realizar" which means to carry out/perform).
• Success: The accomplishment of an aim or purpose (not "exito").
• Bookshop: A store where books are sold (not "libreria" which can also mean library).
• Took care of: Looked after or managed (not "encargarse de").
• Reading: The action or skill of reading (not "leer").
• Carried out: Performed or accomplished (not "carned out" or "llevar a cabo").
• Warned: Informed someone of a possible danger or problem (not "avisar").
• Event: A planned public or social occasion.

English Linkers and Vocabulary

Linkers of Addition

Used to add more information:

• Also: (mid-sentence)
• Too / As well: (end of sentence)
• In addition, Furthermore, Moreover, What's more: (beginning of sentence, followed by a comma)

Linkers of Contrast

Used to show a difference or opposition:

• Although / Even though: (followed by a clause)
• Despite / In spite of: (followed by a noun or -ing form)
• However: (meaning 'but', usually at the beginning of a sentence, followed by a comma)

Relationship Vocabulary

• Row: An argument or fight.
• Finished with: Ended a relationship.
• Dating: Going out with someone romantically.
• Fancy: To be attracted to someone.
• Flirt with: To behave as if attracted to someone, often playfully.
• Kiss: To touch with the lips as a sign of affection.

English Modal Verbs

Modal Functions and Examples

• Obligation: must, have to
• Necessity: need to, needn't
• Advice: ought to, should
• Ability: can, could
• Possibility and Certainty: must, might, may, could, can't

The Debate on School Uniforms

Advantages of School Uniforms

• School uniforms show that a student belongs to a certain school, fostering a sense of identity and community.
• They can reduce judgment among students based on outward appearance, as many students spend money on clothes to be popular.
• School uniforms save time in the mornings because students do not have to think much about what to wear.

Disadvantages of School Uniforms

• Some pupils claim that wearing school uniforms hurts their individuality and self-expression.
• As for saving money, some pupils argue that school uniforms do not save money because they still need to buy additional clothes beyond the uniform.