Key Elements of English Sentence Construction

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Cleft Sentences and Their Structure

What is a Cleft Sentence?

A cleft sentence is one where a single message is divided (cleft) into two clauses.

Unmarked Word Order for Declarative Sentences

The unmarked word order for a declarative sentence in English is SVO (Subject-Verb-Object).

When Can Inversion Be Used?

Inversion can be used in clefts.

Usage of "Who"

The pronoun "who" is used for humans.

Defining Subordinate Clauses

Subordinate clauses are dependent clauses.

Types of Relative Clauses

  • Restrictive
  • Non-restrictive

Inversion with "Never" and "Rarely"

When "never" and "rarely" are in front position, they require subject-auxiliary inversion.

Characteristics of Existential Sentences

Existential sentences have an indefinite subject.

Forms of the Object Complement

The object complement can have the form of a Noun Phrase (NP).

Introducing Relative Clauses with "Where," "When," and "Why"

"Where," "when," and "why" can introduce relative clauses.

Verb Complementation Patterns

Verbs with Post-Predicate "That" Clauses

Major Grammatical Patterns

The three major grammatical patterns for verbs that take a that clause in post-predicate position are:

  1. Verb + that clause
  2. Verb + object + that clause
  3. Verb + adverbial + that clause

Highlighting with Wh-Clefts

What Can Wh-Clefts Highlight?

We can use wh-clefts to highlight objects.

Reduced Relative Clauses

Expression of Reduced Relative Clauses

Reduced relative clauses can be expressed by -ing forms of verbs.

Coordinated Clauses

Syntactic Status of Coordinated Clauses

Coordinated clauses have the same syntactic status.

Noun Clauses

Function of Noun Clauses

Noun clauses often take the place of nouns.

"When" as an Introducer

Types of Clauses Introduced by "When"

  • Time clauses
  • Subject clauses

Existential Sentences Revisited

Key Feature of Existential Sentences

Existential sentences have an indefinite subject.

The Subject Complement

Possible Forms of the Subject Complement

  • Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
  • Noun Phrase (NP)

Post-Predicate Wh-Clauses

Grammatical Patterns for Verb-Controlled Wh-Clauses

Post-predicate wh-clauses controlled by verbs are used in the following grammatical patterns:

  1. Verb + wh-clause
  2. Verb + Noun Phrase (NP)

Examples of Inversion and Conditional Sentences

Inversion for Emphasis

  1. At no time did I borrow your camera. If I had, you would have known.
  2. Only after having the third one did I notice that they tasted odd. If I had noticed earlier, I wouldn’t have eaten them.
  3. Little did I know how hot it would be at the beach yesterday. If I had known, I would have brought sunscreen.
  4. So appalled were we by the service we received that we left the restaurant without paying. If we had been satisfied, we would have paid.
  5. Hardly had Erica stepped into the garden when she tripped over a plant pot and broke her leg. If she had been more careful, she wouldn’t have tripped.

Complex Sentences and Dependent Clauses

Completing Dependent Clauses

Here are examples of complex sentences formed with dependent clauses:

  • For a reason which is not immediately apparent, she decided to leave the meeting early.
  • I wouldn’t be going to London if it weren’t for the business meeting.
  • Even though she is well into her eighties, my mother is remarkably active.
  • Seeing that she hadn’t noticed him, he waved again to get her attention.
  • After careful consideration of their needs, they decided to move to a bigger house.
  • I wouldn’t be going to London unless it was absolutely necessary.
  • He asked to be informed where the missing documents had been found.
  • Those who arrived late were not allowed to enter the hall.
  • Those who borrowed the books should return them by Monday next unless they have received special permission to keep them longer.

Grammar Statements: True or False

Evaluating Grammatical Concepts

Evaluate the following statements as True (T) or False (F):

  • All subordinate clauses are finite clauses. F
  • When wh-clauses are main clauses, they are questions. T
  • All subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. F
  • Introductory it replaces a subject clause, which goes to the end of the sentence. T
  • The commonest use of introductory there follows it with "to be" + a noun phrase. T
  • -ing clauses can be nominal, adjectival, and adverbial in nature. T
  • Normally, -ing clauses are subordinate (dependent) clauses, having no finite verb. T
  • Two coordinated clauses make a complex sentence. F
  • It-type (cleft) sentences can focus on subject, object, or adverbial. T

Sentence Completion: Key Grammatical Concepts

Completing Statements on Clauses and Sentence Types

  1. Relative clauses modify nouns.
  2. We can front the following items in order to achieve contrast or emphasis: adverbials.
  3. We can’t omit the relative pronoun when it is the subject of the relative clause.
  4. In contrast to Type 1 conditional sentences, Type 2 conditional sentences refer to hypothetical or unreal present/future situations.
  5. In contrast to Type 2 conditional sentences, Type 3 conditional sentences refer to hypothetical or unreal past situations.
  6. Subordinate clauses may be adverbial when they function as adverbs, expressing time, reason, condition, etc.
  7. Exclamatives are different from wh-questions in that they express strong emotion rather than ask for information.

Further Sentence Completions

  1. The main clause types are as follows: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative.
  2. The adjunct (adverbial) may be realized by adverbs, prepositional phrases, noun phrases, or clauses.
  3. Imperative sentences are different from declarative sentences because they give commands or requests and often omit the subject.
  4. The subject may be realized by nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases.
  5. The object differs from the complement in that the object receives the action of the verb, while the complement provides additional information about the subject or object.

Verb Complementation Patterns with Examples

Illustrative Sentences for Verb Patterns

Here are sentences demonstrating various verb complementation patterns:

  1. V + AdjP: She seemed happy after the meeting.
  2. V + NP: He bought a new car last week.
  3. V + finite that clause: She believed that he would succeed.
  4. V + non-finite to-infinitive clause: They decided to leave early.
  5. V + non-finite -ing clause: He enjoys playing the guitar in his free time.
  6. V + NP + NP (ditransitive verb): She gave her friend a gift for her birthday.
  7. V + NP + that clause: I told him that I would be late to the meeting.
  8. V + NP + NP (complex transitive verb): The teacher considered the student a genius.
  9. V + NP + PP (obligatory locative): She put the book on the table.
  10. V + NP + bare infinitive: I let him go to the party alone.

Correcting Dangling Modifiers

Rewriting Sentences for Clarity

Here are sentences with corrected dangling modifiers:

  1. Budgeting his money carefully, he finally paid his debts.
  2. While watching a classic film, I find commercials irritating.
  3. To please the children, we set off some fireworks early.
  4. At the age of twelve, I was entered in a contest by my mother.
  5. By taking good care of myself, I never let the flu keep me from work this winter.

Identifying Phrase Types

Categorizing Underlined Strings

  1. I am so eager to work with you. Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
  2. He was wearing the watch that was stolen. Noun Phrase (NP)
  3. There were three lions in the cage. Prepositional Phrase (PP)
  4. Cheerfully, Henry ran out of the house. Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
  5. He denied the fact that she is clever. Verb Phrase (VP)

Identifying Grammatical Functions and Realizations

Analyzing Underlined Constituents

  1. Wool socks will keep your feet very warm. Object Complement, Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
  2. It is raining in England. Subject, Pronoun (Dummy "It")
  3. To see her is to love her. Subject, Non-finite Infinitive Clause
  4. There were three lions in the cage. Subject, Adverb (Existential "There")
  5. Speaker B: I prefer before Easter. Direct Object, Prepositional Phrase (PP)
  6. Who to ask for permission seems quite clear. Subject, Wh-Infinitive Clause
  7. The government believes that the voters are stupid. Direct Object, That Clause
  8. What was she referring to? Object of Preposition, Wh-Pronoun
  9. The crisis began last year. Adverbial, Noun Phrase (NP)
  10. Running a business is hard work. Subject, Gerund Phrase
  11. You will need to travel to the United States, to hear him lecture. Adverbial, Non-finite Infinitive Clause
  12. Gertrude gave her friend a birthday present. Indirect Object, Noun Phrase (NP)
  13. Don’t get mad at me. Prepositional Complement, Prepositional Phrase (PP)

Dangling Modifiers: Correction Exercise

Rewriting for Grammatical Accuracy

Rewrite the following sentences to repair any dangling modifiers:

  1. Original: After walking for hours, the car looked wonderful.
    Correction: After walking for hours, we thought the car looked wonderful.
  2. Original: To lose weight, fatty foods should be avoided.
    Correction: To lose weight, you should avoid fatty foods.
  3. Original: By digging test wells, new oil sources were located.
    Correction: By digging test wells, the researchers located new oil sources.
  4. Original: Dropped in the bushes, the child found the missing keys.
    Correction: The child found the missing keys that had been dropped in the bushes.
  5. Original: Carrying a heavy pile of books, her foot caught on the step.
    Correction: Carrying a heavy pile of books, she caught her foot on the step.

Identifying Phrase Types (Part 2)

Further Practice in Categorizing Strings

  1. I am so happy to leave England. Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
  2. Do you remember that summer which was so sunny? Noun Phrase (NP)
  3. You will have to work very hard. Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
  4. Garry gave the book to Phil. Prepositional Phrase (PP)
  5. She wrote the story. Verb Phrase (VP)

Grammatical Functions and Realizations (Part 2)

Advanced Analysis of Sentence Constituents

  1. To produce an essay every two weeks, you will have to work very hard. Subject, Non-finite Infinitive Clause
  2. When Michelle woke up this morning, she felt sick. Subject Complement, Adjective Phrase (AdjP)
  3. It was hot. Subject, Dummy Pronoun
  4. To be a good teacher is more difficult than people think. Subject, To-Infinitive Clause
  5. She proposed to open a restaurant in London. Direct Object, Non-finite Infinitive Clause
  6. She told her brother a lie. Indirect Object, Noun Phrase (NP)
  7. Going on holiday always creates tensions. Subject, Gerund Clause
  8. He resigned the month before last. Adverbial of Time, Noun Phrase (NP)
  9. They will be cooking the meal when we arrive. Adverbial of Time, Finite Adverbial Clause
  10. I once considered Shyla my fiercest enemy. Object Complement, Noun Phrase (NP)
  11. Where to sleep in this town will not be an easy problem to solve. Subject, Wh-Infinitive Clause
  12. There exist ways of making you talk. Subject, Adverb (Existential "There")
  13. Who are you looking at? Object of Preposition, Wh-Pronoun

Completing Gapped Sentences: Conditional and Inversion Practice

Advanced Sentence Construction

  1. Original: Had it not been for Anna’s help, I would have missed my flight.
    Completion: If I had missed my flight, I would have been stuck at the airport.
  2. Original: No sooner had we turned the television on than there was a loud bang and the room went dark.
    Completion: If that hadn’t happened, we could have watched our show.
  3. Original: Not until I’d sat down did I realize how tired I was.
    Completion: If I had realized earlier, I would have gone to bed sooner.
  4. Original: Should you hear from Richard, could you tell him that I want to see him?
    Completion: If you do, I’d really appreciate it.
  5. Original: Such was the noise coming from the concert down the road that we couldn’t hear each other speak.
    Completion: If it had been quieter, we could have had a proper conversation.
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Tags:
Syntax Rules Relative Clauses Existential Sentences Grammatical Inversion Conditional Sentences Dangling Modifiers Phrase Identification Clause Types English Grammar Sentence Structure Verb Complementation Cleft Sentences