Key Concepts in Modern Political Philosophy and Theory

Machiavelli, Natural Law, and Virtù

Niccolò Machiavelli introduces a realism closer to Aristotle than to Plato, but he is also developing and applying the Stoic and Christian idea of natural law.

In Machiavelli’s hands, natural law becomes elevated above divine law and connected to the notion of good ruling or ability, known as virtù.

Defining the State

What is the State?

According to Velasquez: “The state is the highest authority in a society, with a legal power to define the public interest and enforce its definition” (520).

Contract Theory and Political Legitimacy

Contract Theory is one of the most influential theories in modern political philosophy. It posits that a healthy government and state derive their legitimacy from an agreement of the governed to be ruled.

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

The classical proponents of contract theory include John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and, starting the tradition, Thomas Hobbes.

Hobbes expands on Machiavelli and defends a naturalist explanation for the origins of the state and its legitimacy.

Liberalism and Utilitarianism

One expression of the Contract View is that the best contract guarantees freedom and the rights of the people to pursue happiness. Liberalism, as a philosophy of civil freedom and the pursuit of happiness, can also be established on utilitarian grounds.

Forms of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism can take two forms:

1. Act Utilitarianism: States that each of us should use the pleasure principle (maximization of pleasure) as a rule to determine how we decide between options made available to us as private citizens. This private experience is then generalized to implement utilitarian policy on the level of government.
2. Rule Utilitarianism: The position that government should always use the pleasure principle in choosing general laws for society.

John Stuart Mill: On Liberty (1861)

Mill’s passionate defense of individualism is based on the Harm Principle. You are always free to express yourself and act as long as you do not harm another or infringe upon their liberty.

Waves of Political Feminism

Feminism, as a political movement, has historically been divided into three major waves:

• First Wave Political Feminism

  The women’s suffrage movement was the first political movement that demanded that women be allowed to vote and participate in politics and society.

• Second Wave Feminism

  The middle and end of the twentieth century saw feminists becoming more radical; they sought a revolutionary change in society.

• Third Wave Feminism

  Today, feminism is more complicated, as women take and borrow ideas from earlier thinkers.

Pacifism in Political Theory

Political pacifism can be broken down into two kinds:

1. Absolute Pacifism: Holds that war and violence are always wrong.
2. Conditional Pacifism: Holds that, although war and violence are generally wrong, there are extreme or rare situations where both are justified.