Key Concepts and Conflicts of the 18th Century

Foundations of Modern Thought: The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment introduced new ideas that fundamentally changed the world.

Core Principles

• Sovereignty of Reason: Reason was elevated above religion, encouraging people to think logically.
• Political Reform: A movement advocating for fair and just governments.
• Natural Rights: Rights inherent to individuals simply by virtue of being alive.
• Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: The core values of freedom, equality, and brotherhood for all.
• Tolerance: Respect for all opinions and religious beliefs.

Dissemination of Ideas

• Spread of Ideas: New concepts were widely distributed through books and newspapers.
• Salons: Important meeting places where thinkers and intellectuals gathered to discuss philosophy.
• The Encyclopedia: A monumental work intended to share all knowledge, compiled by *Denis Diderot* and *Jean d'Alembert* (1751–1772).

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• Voltaire: Championed freedom of speech and religious tolerance.
• Rousseau: Argued that political power must originate from the people.
• Montesquieu: Proposed the essential doctrine of the separation of powers.

The French Revolution (1789–1799)

Causes and the Ancien Régime

The Ancien Régime was characterized by royal extravagance and political weakness.

• King Louis XVI was often absent-minded and helped America after the Seven Years' War.
• He spent enormous sums at Versailles; in one day, he could spend what a typical family would earn in 100 years.

Economic Crisis

• Hunger and High Prices: Poor harvests in 1789 meant that people could not afford basic necessities like bread.
• Taxes: The poor (the Third Estate) were forced to pay virtually all the taxes.
• Estates-General: The system was unfair, granting one vote to each of the three estates.
• Third Estate: Represented approximately 99% of the population.

Revolutionary Events

• National Assembly: The representatives of the people formed their own parliament.
• Tennis Court Oath: A pledge stating: “We will not leave until we have established a Constitution.”
• Storming of the Bastille (1789): The populace attacked the fortress-prison.
• Declaration of the Rights of Man: Proclaimed freedom and equality for all men.
• Olympe de Gouges: Fought fiercely for women’s rights, but was ultimately guillotined in 1791.

Radical Phase and Conclusion

• Reign of Terror (1793): A period marked by mass executions and widespread fear.
• Robespierre: The primary leader of the Terror, who was himself later executed.
• Coup d’État (1799): Napoleon Bonaparte seized political power.
• Result: The Revolution formally ended, but its foundational ideas remained influential.

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713)

The Succession Crisis

• King Charles II: Died without producing an heir, triggering a major European conflict.
• Heir Problem: Two powerful European families sought control of the Spanish throne.
• Louis XIV (France): Supported his grandson, Philip of Anjou, as the rightful king.
• Archduke Charles (Austria): Also asserted his claim to the throne.

The Conflict

The war lasted from 1701 to 1713, dividing Europe into two main alliances:

• Team Philip (Bourbon): France and Castile.
• Team Charles (Habsburg): Austria, England, Holland, and Aragon.

Resolution and Consequences

• Treaty of Utrecht (1713): Philip became King of Spain (Philip V), but was required to renounce any claim to the French throne.
• Spain’s Result: The nation lost territories but achieved political unity.
• Centralized State: Power was concentrated in Madrid, establishing uniform laws across the kingdom.
• Exceptions: The Basque Country and Navarre were permitted to keep their traditional privileges.
• Global Shift: England emerged from the conflict as the strongest naval power.
• Spain: The war marked the beginning of Spain's decline as a dominant global force.