Karl Marx: Superstructure, Alienation, and the Power of Praxis

The Political and Cultural Superstructure

The economic basis of society supports the political and cultural superstructure. This superstructure consists of two main structures:

• The Legal and Political Structure: This is the set of rules and laws determining social consciousness. This structure manifests as the State, which Marx views as a political instrument used by the exploiting class to subdue the exploited.
• The Ideological Structure: This is the set of ideas, beliefs, customs, and social consciousness.

While every class consciousness has a representation of reality, it is the consciousness of the ruling class that is projected onto the whole social fabric. These cultural forms are interpreted by Marx as ideologies. These ideologies serve the ruling class, and their primary function is to justify the economic and social privileges held by that class.

Marx's Theory of Alienation

Marx offers a critique of the way humanity exists under the capitalist mode of production, arguing that man becomes alienated or estranged. To be alienated means that man has lost something essential that is inherently his own. Marx identifies two primary types of alienation:

Economic Alienation

Economic alienation is considered the real cause of other forms of social, political, and religious alienation. While work is fundamental to human nature, in the capitalist mode of production, the product of the worker's labor is not his own; the worker invests his own life into it. This product is transformed into capital, meaning that the more wealth the worker creates, the poorer he becomes.

The worker is alienated from himself because his work does not belong to him, leading to his reification—he is reduced to a thing or a commodity whose value is worth little more than a salary.

Religious Alienation

Religious alienation is intrinsically linked to the economic structure because its origin lies in economic exploitation. Religion seeks the salvation and liberation of man, but only in the afterlife, not in this life.

The existence of religion is a symptom of human misery because it clouds consciousness and prevents true liberation. Marx famously stated: “Religion is the opium of the people.” Men have a need for religion because they are not happy in their material existence.

Theory and Critical Praxis

Marx accuses previous philosophers of focusing solely on theory or mere contemplation of reality. In contrast, Marx proposes Praxis—the active construction and transformation of reality. Praxis conceives of man as an active agent who settles reality and guides its transformation.

Theory is intended to guide the actions of men, and the success of this action demonstrates its truth. The truth of a thought depends on its practical application. However, all thought reflects the economic infrastructure; in this sense, philosophy itself can be ideology, which Marx attempts to expose by discovering the underlying class interests.

Critique of Utopian Socialists

Marx also criticized the idealism of Utopian Socialists. While they recognized the misery of the working class, they failed to see the fundamental link between this misery and the economic system. They believed the cause of economic exploitation lay merely in the greed of employers and proposed educational reform as the solution to end it.

Ultimately, Marx conducted a scientific analysis of capitalism, demonstrating how the bourgeoisie had imposed their way of life and ideology, fostering a false consciousness regarding the rights and legitimacy of the working class.