Kant's Intellectual Milieu: History and Philosophy

Historical Framework: The Age of Enlightenment

The historical framework for Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) spanned the period from the English Revolution (1688) to the French Revolution (1789). This era was characterized by the critical use of rationality under the motto Sapere Aude ("Dare to know"). Also significant were the dissemination of the Encyclopedia (by D'Alembert, Diderot) and the prevalence of enlightened despotism, a disguised absolutism, in European monarchies like those of Louis XIV and Frederick II of Prussia. However, the spread of Enlightenment ideas contributed to the decay of the Ancien Régime, reflected in the Declaration of American Independence (1776) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789).

Philosophical Landscape: Rationalism vs. Empiricism

The philosophical context featured the rational debate between Empiricism (Hume) and Rationalism (Leibniz) concerning the origin, limits, and legitimacy of knowledge. In his Critique of Pure Reason (KrV), Kant judged reason itself, seeking the origin and limits of knowledge. His thought was also shaped by the constructive theory of Hobbes and his religious upbringing in Pietism, a doctrine characterized by the internalization of the search for God.

Key Influences on Kant's Thought

Kant admired Newton for reducing the phenomena of nature to exact mathematical laws, adopting mathematical and physical sciences as his paradigm rather than the metaphysics used by previous authors. The early influence of Wolff's Rationalism is evident in Kant's affirmation of universal and necessary knowledge (a priori synthetic judgments) and his concept of pure intuitions (space and time) as analogous to innate ideas. However, Kant credited the empiricist Hume with awakening him from his 'dogmatic slumber,' leading him to conclude that only experience can provide particular knowledge and that metaphysics, in the traditional sense, is not possible as a science. Following Rousseau, Kant also argued that access to God is through sentiment or faith, not pure reason.

Kant's Impact and Legacy

The impact of Kant's thought is profound, notably influencing German Idealism, including figures like Fichte and Hegel. Hegel, defending absolute idealism, defined knowledge as a dialectical process (thesis, antithesis, synthesis), thereby overcoming Kant's division between phenomenon and noumenon. Furthermore, the authors of the Frankfurt School (e.g., Marcuse, Adorno) also show significant Kantian influence.