Kant's Ethics: Foundations of Moral Action

This document delves into one of the initial chapters of Immanuel Kant's seminal work, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Here, Kant analyzes ethics as it manifests in sound natural understanding, without needing formal instruction.

The Concept of Good Will

Kant states that an absolutely good will is one with which we act. According to Kant, a good will is achieved independently of whether its purposes are realized, provided the effort is made to attain it.

Duty and Moral Action

To clarify the concept of good will, Kant introduces the concept of duty, distinguishing between different types of actions:

• Actions conforming to duty: Performed in accordance with duty, but potentially for ulterior motives.
• Actions done from duty: Performed purely out of respect for moral law.
• Actions contrary to duty: Violating moral obligations.

To differentiate these, Kant uses the example of a grocer:

• According to Duty: The shopkeeper charges clients fairly so as not to lose their clientele. (Motive: self-interest)
• From Duty: The shopkeeper charges the same because it is their duty, regardless of clientele. (Motive: moral obligation)
• Contrary to Duty: Charging different prices. Such actions are not considered ethical.

From this, it follows that the key to a good action is not mere compliance with a mandate. For Kant, such a mandate is empty of content. Instead, everyone should follow principles that can be universalized; that is, whatever an individual does, it must be valid for anyone else.

The Universal Law and Categorical Imperative

According to Kant, the goodness of an action depends on whether one can answer 'yes' to the question: "Can you will that your maxim become a universal law?" This allows everyone to know whether they are acting correctly. For example, if you lie to get out of trouble, consider if you would want others to lie to you for the same purpose.

Autonomous vs. Heteronomous Ethics

The will, for Kant, is an autonomous and good will. This means the subject imposes standards upon themselves, setting aside their biases and following the dictates of reason. Kant opposes heteronomous ethics, where the subject adheres to standards imposed from outside.

Formal Ethics and A Priori Principles

Kant asserts throughout his work that it is necessary to establish a formal ethics, one that is universal and rational. The principles upon which it rests are a priori, meaning they are deductions of reason. This ethics is governed by categorical imperatives, which state that an action is good in itself and not merely as a means to achieve something. This contrasts with hypothetical imperatives, where one acts to gain something (e.g., "I help my friend because it is my duty, not to get something in return").

Practical and Theoretical Reason

Kant also discusses in his work the opposition between practical reason and theoretical reason, between "what is" and "what ought to be," and between nature and freedom. According to him, reason has two uses: theoretical (for science) and practical (for ethics).

For example, theoretically, one might say "a lie is a lie." Practically, one would consider putting lies into practice and analyzing the consequences they cause. The universality of reason is a requirement for both practical and theoretical reason.

Kant states that only universal reason provides legitimacy; only that which applies at all times and for everyone is valid. He asserts that while we all have our own desires, inclinations, and tastes, our ethical behavior, at a higher plane, is our submission to the universal law – the categorical imperative.