Justice and Law: Ancient Philosophy to Medieval Church Authority

Plato's Philosophy of Justice and Society

Plato's philosophy referenced a division of worlds: the ideal world (intelligible, perfect) and the real world (perceptible, imperfect). He posited that an ideal society would be divided into distinct classes:

• The class of the wise (philosopher-kings)
• The class of warriors
• The providers class (comprising the majority of the population)

Plato justified social inequality through these classes. A second notion of justice, according to Plato, was the equal treatment for all individuals within similar classes, encapsulated by the principle: "give each what they deserve."

St. Augustine's Legal and Philosophical Concepts

St. Augustine, a principal exponent of Patristic thought, was greatly influenced by Plato. Augustine's philosophical assumptions, particularly his conception of the world, mirrored Plato's division. He shared the world into two realms:

• The City of God, characterized by truth and virtue.
• The City of Men, characterized by appearances and corruption.

Augustine also had three conceptions of human law:

• Law of the State: He stated that all city-states not aligned with Christian assumptions were predestined to perish.
• Law of Justice: Where all individuals deserve what is due to them.
• Law of Rules: Where divine law prevails.

Furthermore, St. Augustine articulated four concepts of law:

• Eternal Law: Where God's reason prevails over His will.
• Natural Law: A part of God's norm that resides within human beings.
• Divine Positive Law: What was supposedly revealed to Moses and the Apostles.
• Temporal Law: Composed of rules that establish the requirements for human beings.

Augustine's view of reality was marked by a negative vision, stemming from humanity's inability to fully perceive the divine will. This divine will, he believed, is variable, and its reason is rooted in divine logic. For humanity to truly know and enforce law and justice, individuals would appeal to their reason, but even this effort would not achieve complete understanding. Therefore, it depended on the ecclesiastical class to disclose God's will, thereby establishing and subordinating authority within society, and perhaps even over the king.

Early Christianity and the Roman Empire

In its early period, Christianity faced severe persecution by the Roman Empire. Jesus, the iconic leader of the movement, concluded his teachings with values that directly challenged the prevailing norms of the time. He criticized the abuses of ecclesiastical authorities, who often used their power for political gain and self-enrichment at the expense of the laity. Instead, Jesus emphasized the superiority of divine authority over earthly power.

Christianity's Legalization and Church Growth

During the 3rd Century, with a relaxation of intolerance towards Christians, the Church began to receive numerous donations and acquire significant assets. However, with the strengthening of persecution under Emperor Diocletian, these assets were confiscated. Following Diocletian's defeat and the rise of Emperor Constantine, Christianity was legalized by the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, and all confiscated Church property was returned. Constantine himself became the first Roman emperor to profess Christianity.

The Fall of Rome and Medieval Justice

Later, in an attempt to save the crumbling empire, Emperor Justinian prepared a comprehensive legal code. However, this effort was ultimately to no avail, as the empire continued to decline after the taking of Constantinople, eventually crumbling and dividing into numerous fiefdoms. Within each particular fiefdom, justice and law were administered locally; the feudal lord served as both legislator and judge.

The Church's Enduring Role in Medieval Law

In this context, the ecclesiastical structure was already well-established. The legal texts compiled by Justinian, which had long been lost, now returned to the hands of the clergy who founded the Patristic school. For the Patristic school, justice and law were intrinsically linked to the knowledge of the divine will. However, they believed that human reason alone could not fully grasp this divine will. Therefore, its interpretation and legitimacy rested with the Church, as the representatives of God on Earth.

The Church justified its divine and political authority by referencing past philosophers, thereby securing its crucial role in justice and law throughout the medieval period, particularly in the latter half. This period saw a complex interplay of human authority, divine authority, and the teachings of figures like Plato and Jesus, all shaping the understanding of law and politics.