José Ortega y Gasset: Spanish Philosophy and Legacy

The Philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset

José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955), a prominent Spanish writer, essayist, and thinker, was born in Madrid. He held a doctorate in philosophy and served as a lecturer in metaphysics. His understanding of the history of philosophy emphasized a profound dialogue with classical Greek thought, alongside a critical engagement with contemporary German philosophy.

His extensive work is typically divided into three distinct periods:

• The Objectivist Period: Characterized by his time in Germany, focusing on objective reality.
• The Perspectivist Period: Where he posited that human beings apprehend the world from a specific, unique perspective, revealing a variety of facets.
• The Ratio-Vitalist Period: His most mature phase, centered on the thesis that "life is the fundamental reality."

Historical Context of Ortega's Philosophy

Ortega's philosophical development unfolded during a critical period in Spain's recent history. This era encompassed:

• The Bourbon Restoration under King Alfonso XII.
• The dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera (from 1923).
• The proclamation of the Second Republic.
• The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).
• The initial years of General Franco's dictatorship.

From the late 19th century until the Civil War, Spain's socioeconomic conditions positioned it as a relatively backward society within Europe. Beyond Spain's borders, the early to mid-20th century witnessed a series of transformative global historical, political, and socioeconomic events. The first decade of the century saw the rise of nascent capitalism in both European powers and the U.S. Europe was engulfed by the First World War. Czarist Russia succumbed to the rising labor movement led by Lenin. In the U.S., the Great Crash of 1929 prompted significant political and economic reorientation. The accession to power of fascist parties led to the outbreak of World War II. Following the defeat of Germany, Italy, and Japan, the new international order was divided into two major blocs: the Western bloc and the Communist bloc.

Philosophical Currents and Influences

This period saw the flourishing of several influential generations of thinkers and writers, including:

• The Generation of '98
• The Generation of 1914 (also known as Novecentismo)
• The Generation of '27

During Ortega's lifetime, various philosophical currents were prominent, such as idealism and vitalism. Ortega himself was profoundly influenced by philosophical ideas centered on the fundamental axes of historicity, life, and the irreducibility of human beings.

Ortega's Critique: Overcoming Modernity

Ortega posited that a fundamental task for his era was to overcome the basic principles of modernity. He argued that the modern age's foundational principles and philosophy of subjectivity were largely characterized by rationalism and idealism. Rationalism, which posits reason as the fundamental dimension of humanity, promotes the idea of rationality as a historical capacity enabling the attainment of abstract truths. However, in its most extreme forms, rationalism can be seen as contrary to life itself.

Idealism, in contrast to the realist theses of ancient and medieval thought, and often opposed to rationalism, relativism, and vitalism, presents a different perspective. Ortega rejected a purely ahistorical and transpersonal vision of reason. Instead of proposing a radical anti-life attitude, he advocated for a 'vital reason' – a reason intrinsically linked to life.

He also critically engaged with both realism and idealism:

• Realism asserts that reality exists independently of consciousness.
• Idealism, conversely, maintains that reality is a construction of subjectivity, meaning consciousness is inseparable from the act of knowing.

This latter concept, the discovery of subjectivity, is often attributed to Descartes.