John Locke: Empiricism, Knowledge, and Political Thought

John Locke's Philosophical Contributions

Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology)

Locke, in his work, begins by demonstrating the absence of innate principles in the human mind. He argues that even the idea of God is not innate. Nativism, according to Locke, is a myth; no ideas or knowledge are given to humans prior to experience. To counter nativism, Locke proposes an alternative explanation through the development of mental sense via immediate experience (sensation and reflection).

The core hypothesis is that our mind comes into the world empty, a tabula rasa (blank slate), devoid of knowledge. For Locke, experience becomes the origin and foundation of all knowledge, which must ultimately be referred back to experience for confirmation.

Types of Ideas

Locke conceives of ideas in a manner somewhat similar to Descartes:

• Simple Ideas: Caused in us by the outside world (sensation) or our own mental operations (reflection). Locke distinguishes between ideas of primary qualities (inherent in objects, like solidity, extension) and ideas of secondary qualities (powers in objects to produce sensations in us, like color, sound, taste).
• Complex Ideas: Formed by the mind combining simple ideas. These include:
  • Ideas of modes (qualities not existing independently, e.g., gratitude).
  • Ideas of substances (combinations of simple ideas taken to represent distinct particular things, though the underlying substance itself is only a hypothesis).
  • Ideas of relations (comparing ideas, e.g., causality).

In addition to these, the mind also produces abstract ideas. Locke suggests these express only a nominal essence; they are constructs of the understanding, like the words that signify them. In this way, Locke constructs the entirety of human knowledge, simultaneously setting limits to it and delineating the scope of metaphysics by suggesting reality's inaccessibility beyond our ideas. The result is a renunciation of absolute claims to knowledge beyond experience.

Certainty and Reality

Locke addresses the connection between ideas and reality. He posits that we don't directly know that external things exist, but we know the ideas of the things we've perceived. The knowledge of things is caused by actually existing things because our sense organs do not create the sensation itself.

Grades of Knowledge

Another concern is how the mind knows. For Locke, there are three degrees or ways of knowing:

1. Intuition: Immediate, direct perception of the agreement or disagreement of ideas (e.g., knowing white is not black). This is the most certain form of knowledge.
2. Demonstration: Knowledge achieved through reasoning and intermediate ideas (proofs), like in mathematics.
3. Sensation: Knowledge of the existence of particular external objects present to our senses.

Political Philosophy

In politics, Locke proposes a division of powers. Through the social contract, individuals waive their right to enforce the natural law themselves, creating civil society and state authority. However, they do not relinquish the rest of their natural rights (life, liberty, property), which must be recognized and protected by the state.

Structure of Government

The state constitution establishes two main powers:

• Legislative Power: The supreme power responsible for making laws.
• Executive Power: Responsible for enforcing the laws.

Locke emphasizes that the legislative power is supreme, but ultimate sovereignty always resides with the people. Thus, Locke enunciated principles of a theory based on universal reason and the natural rights of citizens, which would exercise enormous influence in the future development of liberal thought.

State and Religion

Aside from the structure of power, the state's role is to guarantee citizens the exercise of their rights, including free association and worship. Locke established the principle of the secular state and religious freedom. However, this tolerance notably excluded atheists, who, it was thought, by their denial of God, dissolved the principles underlying civil society. With these ideas, Locke addressed and formalized aspects of the political and religious situation existing in contemporary England.