The Italian Unification: History of the Risorgimento

The Unification of Italy: The Risorgimento

Setting the Stage for Unification

In 1849, Italy was defeated by Austria. The 1850s saw intense development within the Italian states, highlighting significant differences between the North and the South. While perspectives favored the northern bourgeoisie, the internal borders and customs remained restrictive.

Giuseppe Mazzini started the national movement, which centered on the organization Young Italy and promoted a vision of a federal republic.

Key International Context

• Austria was isolated after the Crimean War.
• France, led by Napoleon III, sought to revise the Congress of Vienna and weaken Austria, thereby benefiting Italy.
• In 1858, Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III, influencing French policy toward Italy.
• Russia sought to revise the Treaty of Paris through an alliance with France, involving Austria in the Italian conflict.

The Risorgimento, Phase I: Diplomacy and War (1858–1860)

In 1858, the Plombières Agreement established a secret alliance between Napoleon III and Camillo Cavour. The terms included:

• For France: Savoy and Nice.
• For Italy: A federation led honorifically by the Pope but practically by Victor Emmanuel II. This federation would include:
  • Piedmont (Lombardy and Venice)
  • Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and parts of the Papal States
• The Pope would retain Rome, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies would maintain the status quo.

In 1859, war erupted between Austria versus France and Sardinia. Austria was defeated at the battles of Magenta and Solferino. However, Napoleon III withdrew (due to pressure from French Catholics, Prussia, and Russia), leading to the Agreement of Villafranca.

In 1860, plebiscites were held in Middle Italy, resulting in annexation to Piedmont. Savoy and Nice were ceded to France. In the same year, Giuseppe Garibaldi led the famous Expedition of the Thousand (I Mille), followed by a plebiscite in the Two Sicilies favoring annexation to Piedmont.

The Kingdom of Italy Proclaimed (1861)

In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed the King of Italy. Although Rome was intended as the capital, it remained under the control of the Papal States at that time.

Key Figures of Unification

• Camillo Cavour: Piedmontese statesman and Prime Minister (1852–1861). He modernized Piedmont politically and economically and used shrewd diplomacy to unite the northern Italian states.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi: Known as 'the hero of two worlds.' Garibaldi was a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento, personally commanding and fighting in many military campaigns that eventually led to the formation of a unified Italy.
• Victor Emmanuel II: King of Sardinia and the first King of unified Italy.

The Risorgimento, Phase II: Completion (1866–1871)

The final stages of unification were achieved through international conflicts:

• Venice (1866): Acquired following the Austro-Prussian War.
• The Roman Question (1870): Resolved due to the Franco-Prussian War. Napoleon III had to withdraw his troops from Rome.

Following the French withdrawal, a plebiscite was held in the Papal States, where the population voted to join Italy. Pope Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican.

In 1871, the unification of Italy was completed, and King Victor Emmanuel addressed the Parliament, establishing Rome as the capital.