Italian and German Unification in the 19th Century

Italian Unification

Background

In 1848, Italy was divided into seven kingdoms. There was a strong desire to unify the country, but discussions arose about who should lead the process:

• The Pope (Pius IX) was considered, but he refused to fight against the Austrians.
• The King of Piedmont, governed by the House of Savoy, was the other option.

Ultimately, the House of Savoy was chosen to lead the unification process.

1st Stage (1859-1861)

Piedmont, under its Prime Minister Cavour, secured the support of France (Napoleon III) in exchange for Nice and Savoy. The Austrians were defeated in Magenta and Solferino, leading to the annexation of Lombardy and Central Italy by the Italians. In the south, Garibaldi, with his "Thousand Red Shirts" (or "Expedition of the Thousand"), overthrew the Bourbon dynasty. Naples and Sicily subsequently became part of Italy. Parma, Modena, and Tuscany revolted against their monarchs and joined Piedmont. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy was proclaimed King of Italy.

2nd Stage (1866)

Italy formed an alliance with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War. Following Austria's defeat at Sadowa in 1866, Italy gained control of Venice.

3rd Stage (1870)

After the Franco-Prussian War and the French defeat at Sedan (Napoleon III), Italy conquered Rome, completing the unification process.

The Roman Question

In 1929, the Lateran Pacts were signed, in which the Pope recognized the Italian Unification and the independence of the Vatican City.

German Unification

Main Figures

The key figures in German unification were William I, King of Prussia, and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Their goal was to unify Germany, excluding Austria (Prussia's rival).

Origins

• Zollverein: A customs union established in 1834 among Prussia and the majority of German states.
• Frankfurt Assembly (1848): The German parliament offered the Prussian King Frederick William III the crown, but he refused.

1st Stage (1848-1866)

• Second Schleswig War (1864): Austria and Prussia fought against Denmark over the Schleswig-Holstein question. They had previously agreed that Schleswig would go to Prussia and Holstein to Austria.
• Austro-Prussian War (1866): Austria declared war on Prussia and was defeated at the Battle of Sadowa. Austria was subsequently expelled from Germany.

2nd Stage (1870)

• Franco-Prussian War (1870): Bismarck refused to hand over Luxembourg to Napoleon III, leading to war. Prussia achieved victory at Sedan, and the French territories of Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany.

In 1871, William I was proclaimed Kaiser of the Second German Empire. Germany emerged as the strongest state in Europe, and Bismarck became the new leader in international relations.