Industrial Revolution: Origins, Progress, and Global Impact

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

Economic Factors

• Changes in land tenure and large estates
• Need to supply peripheral markets
• Rise of capitalism

Social Factors

• Population growth
• Unemployment

Political Factors

• Political consolidation
• Rise of the bourgeoisie

Population Growth and Its Impact

Since the eighteenth century, plague epidemics were disappearing, and the development of agriculture allowed for increased food production. This led to a catastrophic decline in mortality rates (due to starvation, wars, and epidemics). European mortality, including infant mortality, decreased. While birth rates fell slowly, they remained high, leading to considerable vegetative growth. Population growth was more pronounced in cities, leading to significant migrations, particularly to America.

Agricultural Revolution and Its Role

Agricultural improvements continued with enclosures (the concentration of land into large estates), supported by governments. This allowed for the introduction of technical improvements and specialization in more profitable crops.

How Agriculture Fueled Industrialization

• Increased food production fed a rapidly growing population.
• Technical improvements reduced the number of farmers required, providing labor for burgeoning industries.
• Profits obtained by landowners were reinvested in agriculture, trade, and new industries.
• Increased demand for metal agricultural tools and machinery spurred the development of metallurgy and steel.

Technological Advancements

The increasing demand for machinery spurred technical innovations, leading to increased production and profits. These inventions, initially simple and often built from wood by craftsmen without formal scientific training, began in England's textile sector.

Key Aspects of Technological Development

• The significance lies not just in the invention itself, but in its widespread diffusion within industry. An invention is only truly applied when an employer invests in its implementation.
• Each invention is significant not in isolation, but because it often sparks further innovations. The most pivotal innovation was James Watt's steam engine, which had profound consequences.

Stages of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution is generally divided into two main stages: the First Industrial Revolution (approximately 1750-1840) and the Second Industrial Revolution (approximately 1880-1914).

Consequences of Industrialization

Demographic Impacts

• Rural-to-urban population transfer (rural exodus)
• Increased international migration
• Sustained population growth
• Growing disparities between social groups

Economic Transformations

• Mass production
• Development of industrial capitalism
• Emergence of large enterprises and the factory system
• Unequal exchanges in global trade

Social Changes

• Birth of the proletariat (industrial working class)
• Emergence of the 'social question' (issues of poverty, inequality, and labor rights)

Environmental Impacts

• Environmental deterioration and landscape degradation
• Irrational exploitation of natural resources