Imperialism and the Second Industrial Revolution: Causes and Global Impact

The Rise of Global Imperialism (1870–1914)

The last third of the nineteenth century witnessed the Second Industrial Revolution, which fueled the expansion of major European powers, including Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and Holland. This era of Imperialism was driven by technological advances, improved transport, the market economy, and military superiority, allowing these powers to dominate politically and economically.

The primary target regions for colonization were Asia and Africa. The relationship between the colonizer and the colonized was characterized by inherent superiority and systematic exploitation.

Driving Forces of Colonial Expansion

Economic Motivations for Imperialism

• Raw Materials: Importing cheap raw materials from the colonies.
• Market Expansion: Exporting surplus industrial production (selling goods at higher prices).
• Capital Investment: Investing surplus funds in new colonial markets.

Demographic Pressures

• White Migration: Encouraging the immigration of white populations toward the colonies.
• Welfare Improvement: Working in the colonies was often seen as a path to better welfare for the emigrated population.

Political and Strategic Goals

• Territorial Expansion: European borders were consolidated, necessitating expansion outside Europe to maintain power.
• Competition: Intense competition between powers on military, strategic, and economic levels.

Ideological Justifications

Imperialism was underpinned by a pervasive belief in the superiority of European civilization, leading to widespread Racism and the justification of domination over other cultures.

Consequences of Imperialism

Demographic Impacts

• Population Growth: Increased population in colonies due to hygienic and health improvements introduced by colonizers.
• Increased Mortality: High mortality rates among indigenous populations due to wars, new diseases, and brutal exploitation.
• Migration: Significant migration of Europeans to the colonies.

Economic Transformation

The focus on cash crops (agricultural exports) and mining decreased local food production, resulting in hunger and severe food-population imbalances.

Social and Political Disruption

• Imposed Hierarchy: Colonizers imposed their own hierarchical social model.
• Favoritism: Certain indigenous social groups were favored over others to maintain control.
• Internal Conflict: Separated cultures and rival peoples were often merged into single administrative units, producing internal wars upon independence.

Cultural Acculturation

Settlers believed their civilization was superior and actively sought to impose it. This resulted in the acculturation of indigenous people, often leading to the loss of traditional morals and cultural identity.

Geographical Scope of Colonization

The Scramble for Africa

Colonization was quick and brutal. Britain focused on a North-South axis (Cape to Cairo), while France focused on an East-West axis. Germany and Italy were late participants in the colonial race.

The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) was held to decide the rules and areas of occupation, formalizing the division of the continent.

Imperialism in Asia

Asia was occupied by European powers, the United States, Japan, and Russia.

• Britain: Annexed Burma, parts of Afghanistan, and Malaysia.
• France: Colonized Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia).
• China: Was not fully colonized, but trade was opened through unequal treaties following the Opium Wars.

Major Colonial Powers

The British Empire

The largest colonial empire globally. The East India Company initially colonized India, which was later transferred to the British Monarchy (The Raj). India served primarily as a supplier of raw materials.

The French Empire

The second largest colonial empire. France established control in North Africa (e.g., Algeria) and Southeast Asia. They faced significant competition with the British Empire.

Non-European Powers: US and Japan

These were the unique powers outside Europe that engaged in significant colonization.

• United States: Expanded into the Pacific and Caribbean (acquiring territories like the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Hawaii).
• Japan: Halted Russian expansion in Manchuria and occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and the Kuril Islands.

Classifying Colonial Rule

Colonies of Exploitation

These colonies had an employment policy focused purely on economic exploitation by the metropolis, primarily through large-scale plantations and mines.

Colonies of Settlement (Dominions)

Due to favorable conditions, these areas received large migrations of white populations. They remained highly dependent on the metropolis and were often referred to as dominions (e.g., Canada, Australia).

Protectorates

Indigenous governments were maintained, but the metropolis controlled crucial functions such as defense and foreign policy.