Imperialism's Impact and Expansion: 19th and 20th Centuries

The Tracks or Consequences of Imperialism

Colonialism brought significant economic and cultural changes, profoundly impacting the lifestyles of indigenous peoples.

Economic Exploitation

Europeans practiced a plunder economy, exploiting resources at the lowest possible cost. European settlers appropriated land, displacing indigenous populations, some of whom were systematically exterminated. Large companies received concessions to exploit the land through the plantation system, often with forced labor and mistreatment of the native people. Forced labor and the destruction of traditional activities increased the misery of the indigenous population. Railways, highways, ports, and telegraph cables were designed to facilitate exploitation by the metropolis. The metropolis imposed their currencies, taxes, and tariffs, set to cover the costs of occupation.

Colonial Society

Western medicine reduced mortality rates, while fertility remained high. This led to rapid urbanization coupled with chronic poverty and increased social tensions. Artificial boundaries disrupted traditional societies and tribal groups, creating tensions that persist today. Imperialist actions were so powerful that they led to acculturation and a loss of identity among indigenous populations. Within the colonial government, an elite Indian class emerged, generating a growing sense of nationalism fueled by liberal and socialist ideas.

European Imperialism

Japanese Expansionism

Japan followed an expansionist and aggressive model to dominate Korea and China. This was driven by population pressure, the need to find foreign markets for their products, and the demand for raw materials for their industry, all reinforced by Japanese nationalism.

Japan occupied the Kurile and Ryukyu Islands and forced Korea to accept Japanese settlers. This led to war with China, during which Japan occupied Korea and parts of Manchuria. China recognized Korea's independence and ceded Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur. The conflict over Manchuria resulted in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, in which Japan gained the southern part of Sakhalin Island and consolidated its protectorate over Korea and Manchuria.

U.S. Imperialism

In the 19th century, U.S. expansion was initially limited to settling the West and Mexican territories. In the U.S.-Mexican War from 1846 to 1848, the U.S. annexed New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California. In 1867, it purchased Alaska from Russia. U.S. imperialism was driven by several ideological and political reasons:

• The Exalted Feeling of American Superiority:
  • The Monroe Doctrine defined America as the U.S.'s sphere of influence.
  • The doctrine of Manifest Destiny asserted that Americans were God's chosen people, justifying their expansion.

  These doctrines solidified a nationalism based on the perceived racial, political, religious, cultural, and technical superiority of white Anglo-Saxon Protestants over Catholic Latinos.

• Geopolitical Conceptions: Admiral Alfred T. Mahan advocated for strengthening the U.S. position through strategic dominance of the sea, control of major naval bases, and building a large navy.

These factors justified the "right of intervention." In 1898, President McKinley led the U.S. into war with Spain, resulting in Cuba's independence and the cession of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. He also annexed the Republic of Hawaii at the request of American residents.

In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt implemented the "Big Stick" policy, asserting the right to intervene in Latin American countries. He facilitated Panama's independence from Colombia and militarily occupied the Canal Zone. Since then, U.S. armed interventions in South America have been continuous and often intertwined with international military actions, including its involvement in world wars.