The Iberian Kingdoms: Castile and Aragon, 1230–1492

The Crown of Castile (1230–1492)

The Crown of Castile began in 1230 when Fernando III inherited the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of León, uniting them under a single crown.

Institutional Structure of Castile

The territories were governed by shared institutions and laws. The monarch held significant power, able to declare war, make laws, and act as a judge. Key institutions included:

• Parliament (Cortes): Composed of noblemen, clergy, and representatives from cities.
• Royal Council: Advised the King on governance and policy.
• High Court (Audiencia): Held supreme judicial authority.

Municipal Government: The Council was the main governing body, while the Chief Magistrate represented the King in the cities.

Castilian Economy and the Mesta

Following the conquest of Extremadura and Andalusia, transhumance (the seasonal movement of sheep) developed on a very large scale. In summer, sheep moved to northern Castile, and in winter, they moved south along routes called cañadas.

In 1273, the Mesta, an association of the main sheep owners, was established and granted many privileges by the monarch. This led to a boom in trade fairs focused on the sale of wool.

Internal Conflicts and Dynastic Change

The period was marked by significant conflicts:

• Economic Crisis: Population fell, and land was abandoned.
• Peasant Revolts: Driven by increased taxes imposed on the peasantry.
• Noble Rebellions: Attempts by nobles to seize each other's lands.

The most important rebellion involved Enrique of Trastámara against King Pedro I. Enrique II successfully became the monarch in 1369, establishing the Trastámara dynasty in Castile.

During the 15th century, Castile began the conquest of the Canary Islands.

The Crown of Aragon

The Crown of Aragon comprised the Catalan counties and the Kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, and Mallorca. Each territory maintained its own distinct institutions.

Aragonese Institutional Structure

Each territory had its own Parliament (Cortes). Key administrative and judicial bodies included:

• The Generalitat: Held an administrative role, particularly in Catalonia.
• The Justicia: An official in Aragon who defended the rights and privileges of the people against the King.

The city council developed significant autonomy within the Crown of Aragon.

Territorial Expansion of Aragon

Aragonese expansion began in the 12th century:

• King Alfonso I/II focused on the Ebro Valley.
• King Jaime I conquered Valencia, Alicante, Murcia, and the Balearic Islands.
• King Pedro III and his successors expanded into the Mediterranean, acquiring Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples.

Economic Activities in the Crown of Aragon

Economic specialization varied across the territories:

• Aragon: Primarily rural, focused on agriculture and livestock farming.
• Catalonia: Strong manufacturing industry, specializing in textiles, ironwork, and naval construction.
• Valencia: An important trading center, facilitating Mediterranean commerce.

Social Conflicts and the Aragonese Civil War

The Black Death struck in 1348, causing demographic decline and economic disruption.

The Trastámara dynasty took power in 1412 when Martín I died and Fernando of Antequera was named king.

Under this dynasty, severe social conflicts arose:

• Peasant Revolts: Caused by epidemics, demographic decline, and the nobility imposing extra taxes. Remensa peasants (who were tied to the land) rebelled against the nobility.
• Urban Conflicts: Nobles defended traditional privileges, opposed by an alliance of smaller merchants, artisans, and poor people.

King Juan II favored the *remensa* cause, contributing to the outbreak of the Civil War (1462–1472).