Hume, Kant, Marx: Key Philosophical Concepts Explained

Hume: The Negation of Reality

Hume believed that the negation of reality does not have important empirical consequences for ethics. He argued that moral duty is not an empirical fact, and attempted to demonstrate its inconsistency. One of the main tenets of ethical empiricism is the inability to transition from 'being' to 'ought,' a philosophical position known as Hume's Law. Hume's exclusion of values contradicts the evidence because duty is not an empirical fact (it can be something, but one does not have to pay because of it).

Kantian Apriorism

Bridging rationalism and empiricism, Kant proposed that knowledge is a synthesis of intuitions and sensitivity with understanding and concepts. Without feeling, there is no serious purpose. Thought without content is empty, and intuitions without concepts are blind. The two faculties cannot exchange their functions; understanding cannot intuit anything, nor can feelings think of anything.

Kant stated that all empiricism commences with experience, marking both the starting point and the limit of knowledge.

• Rationalism: Not all knowledge is derived from experience.
• A posteriori knowledge: Knowledge derived from the object.
• A priori knowledge: Knowledge derived from the subject.

Kant's Arguments

Kant addressed arguments concerning the existence of God:

• Ontological Argument: Kant argued that existence does not add perfection to the concept of God as a perfect being. One can think of God as the perfect being without knowing if God exists.
• Cosmological Argument: Kant criticized the abuse of the principle of sufficient reason, which is only valid within the realm of sensitive experience.
• Theological Argument: Kant stated that this argument does not conclude the existence of an omniscient creator God, but only a very wise one.

Kant admitted that God, the soul, and freedom are immortal as a moral obligation.

Marx and Engels: Materialism

The materialism of Marx and Engels was a reaction against the idealism of Hegel and forms the doctrinal basis of Marxism. This materialism has two versions: dialectical materialism (applied to nature) and historical materialism (applied to history). Engels formulated dialectical materialism, influenced by developments in chemistry and biology. He posited that the only real thing in nature is matter, which is internally dynamic and develops in a process from simple to complex. Engels denied the existence of separate spiritual entities within matter, asserting that human thought activity is due to a material organ, the brain. There is no thought or spiritual life without it.

Historical Materialism

Marx formulated historical materialism. According to this theory, society is a system of interrelated structures. The economic infrastructure determines the cultural superstructure. What people think depends on how they organize their productive activity, i.e., their material living conditions. Being determines thinking, not the other way around. A change in the economic infrastructure causes changes in all systems. The set of all production systems constitutes the engine of historical progress and under-development, driven by class struggle.