Humanity: Death, Philosophy, Perception, and Intelligence

Attitudes Toward Death

Attitudes toward death can be categorized as:

• Agnostic: Not wanting to acknowledge the existence of such questions and avoiding the question of death (e.g., "I do not think, I do not plan").
• Dogmatic: Believing one has the answer and ceasing to inquire further (e.g., "My religion says death is a transition, so I don't need to consider other solutions").
• Tragic: Experiencing constant agony and anguish, continually searching for an answer but certain of not finding it.
• Hopeful-explorer: Continuously searching, potentially finding answers from beliefs, but remaining open to further questions.

Philosophical Anthropology

Philosophical anthropology is the philosophical reflection on human beings, incorporating insights from science and experience. It considers the contributions of the history of philosophy and current philosophical proposals.

Perspectives on Human Beings

• From above: This is the proper orientation for spiritual and religious conceptions that view humans as beings open to transcendence.
• From outside: These conceptions emphasize the importance of culture and society for the individual.
• From within: These are psychological perspectives on existence and vitality that relate to personal life.
• From below: These are physical and materialistic conceptions that place human beings in connection with nature.

Critical Phenomena

The "critical phenomena" are:

• The relation of humans to nature.
• The relation of humans to others.
• The relationship of humans with their own limits.
• The relation of humans to the possible.

Perspectives on Death

• As a biological fact: Discussed from the perspectives of biology and medicine.
• As a socio-cultural phenomenon: In humans, there is no purely biological aspect. Social and cultural interpretations exist.
• As a personal event: A biographical process.

Philosophers on Death

• Epicurus: Believed that humans can stop worrying and remove their false fears. We should not fear death because when we exist, death does not, and when death exists, we do not.
• Heidegger: Argued that the fundamental feature of human life is to live in the face of death.
• Unamuno: Showed rebellion against death, questioning its purpose and meaning. If death awaits us all, why should it? What sense does it make?

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: Detecting something through the senses without it having been fully developed or having a clear meaning yet (uptake of a stimulus).
• Perception: Recognition of a specific object that can be understood and interpreted.

Theories of Perception

• Relational theory: States that perception is a set of sensations.
• Gestalt theory: We perceive wholes first, and then, through a process of abstraction, we can distinguish and separate the sensations.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

Rationalism

• Full confidence in reason as the only true source of knowledge.
• Senses are considered deceptive.
• Innate ideas exist in the mind, from which knowledge is derived.
• Knowledge concerns the ideas of reason; there is no reliable access to real things.
• Examples: Descartes, Spinoza.

Empiricism

• All knowledge comes from experience.
• The mind receives data provided to us by the senses.
• Denies the existence of innate ideas.
• All knowledge refers to ideas, not things themselves. It is not possible to access things except through our senses.
• Example: Hume.

Intelligence

Intelligence is the power of the human mind to know. It allows us to identify the degree of maturity of an individual. Factors influencing intelligence include:

• Learning
• Culture and socialization
• Attention and motivation
• Relations and planning
• Knowledge, memory, efficiency, and adaptive behavior

Types of Intelligence

• Linguistic: The ability to use language effectively, including speaking, working with words, gestures, or signs. Example: Poets.
• Logical-mathematical: The ability for logic, mathematical reasoning, observation, and deduction. Example: Researchers.
• Spatial: The ability to form a mental model of a spatial world and to maneuver and operate using that model. Example: Engineers.
• Musical: The ability to play instruments, perceive melodies, etc. Example: Musicians.
• Bodily-kinesthetic: The ability to solve problems or create products using the body. Example: Dancers.
• Interpersonal: The ability to understand other people. Example: Salespeople, teachers.
• Intrapersonal: Personal intelligence directed outward from the individual.