Humanism, Reformation, and Renaissance: Shaping Early Modern Europe

Humanism: A New Worldview

Humanism was an intellectual movement characterized by its admiration for the Classical Age. Human beings were considered the center of the universe, rejecting medieval theocentrism. Key humanists included Erasmus of Rotterdam and Thomas More.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Reformation took place in Europe in the 16th century, profoundly impacting religious and political landscapes.

The Protestant Reformation

Initiated by the German monk Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformation rejected the Pope's authority and criticized corruption within the Church. Luther argued that salvation was achieved through faith in Christ alone and proclaimed only two sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist. Other significant Protestant movements included:

• Calvinism: Founded by John Calvin, this movement believed in predestination, meaning each person is destined by God for eternal salvation or condemnation.
• Anglicanism: Started when King Henry VIII of England rejected the Pope's authority and proclaimed himself head of the Anglican Church.

The Counter-Reformation

The Council of Trent determined the measures and principles the Catholic Church had to follow in response to the Protestant Reformation. Key tenets included:

• Affirmation of the authority of the Pope and the Church.
• Good works were deemed necessary for salvation.
• Only the Church could interpret the Bible.
• Reaffirmation of seven sacraments.
• Priests were supervised and trained to fulfill their duties effectively.

Renaissance Culture, Architecture, and Art

Renaissance Architecture and Art

The Renaissance was an artistic style developed in the 15th and 16th centuries, inspired by Ancient Greece and Rome.

Renaissance Architecture

Features were inspired by the ancient world, incorporating elements such as semicircular arches, domes, and Corinthian columns. Renowned architects included Leon Battista Alberti. In the 16th century, Michelangelo designed the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City.

Renaissance Sculpture

Themes included religious and mythological subjects, as well as portraits. Sculpture was characterized by the beauty and idealization of human figures. Notable Renaissance sculptors include Michelangelo, famous for works like the Pietà.

Renaissance Painting

Techniques included tempera and oil painting on canvas or wood panels. Themes became more varied, encompassing religious, historical, and portraiture. Figures appeared more natural, and depth was achieved through the innovative use of perspective.

The Early Modern Period in Spain

Spanish Politics Under the Catholic Monarchs

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

Isabel of Castile and Fernando of Aragon, known as the Catholic Monarchs, reigned over the Iberian Peninsula. However, Castile and Aragon remained independent kingdoms, each with its own Cortes, laws, languages, and coinage.

Domestic Policy of the Catholic Monarchs

• Subjected the nobility and clergy to royal authority.
• Created the Santa Hermandad (Holy Brotherhood) to maintain order.
• Transformed the Council of Castile and established the Council of Aragon.
• Created courts of justice to centralize legal power.
• Organized a permanent army to conquer the Kingdom of Granada (1492), the Canary Islands (1496), and part of the Kingdom of Navarre (1515).
• Achieved religious unification by expelling the Jews and extending the Inquisition.