Human Species, Language Evolution, and Linguistic Diversity

Species: The Ability to Produce Fertile Offspring

The expansion of the human species originated in Africa. This expansion occurred in several waves, separated by various geomorphic changes.

A Single Hominid: Homo Sapiens

Today, only one hominid species remains: Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis were never able to interbreed successfully (as far as we know, based on mitochondrial DNA tests).

Language Acquisition as a Species Trait

Another defining characteristic of our species is the ability to learn any human language. We can compare different language groups, known as language families (such as Indo-European). A language family is a set of languages that share a kinship relationship (historical, syntactic, morphological, etc.). Thus, they form a phylogenetic unit (Romance, Germanic, Slavic, Celtic, etc.). Families have a macro level (Indo) and a micro level.

Reconstructing Phylogenetic History Through Language

Through language history, we can reconstruct the phylogenetic history of peoples.

• Africa: Several language families exist (Bantu languages, etc.). There is relatively little difficulty in tracing their origins.
• Madagascar: We now know that the language of Madagascar originates from Aboriginal peoples on the island of Formosa.
• Pacific: All languages belong to the same language group, except in Papua New Guinea (with over 900 languages), where individuals typically speak at least six languages.
• USA: Currently, there are 150 languages, but only 15 have a realistic chance of survival.
• Basque: We do not know the precise origin of Basque, but we are certain of its existence before the Iberian languages. Genetic tests have not been conclusive because the Basques have lived in the same geographical area for thousands of years.

Linguistic Diversity and Language Policy

Linguistic diversity can be considered normal, but Europe is currently the continent with the fewest languages. There is a noticeable trend toward decreasing language diversity, often due to uniform language policies. For example, France has seven languages but only one official language. A counter-example to this trend is Switzerland, where people speak an average of three languages.

The Evolution of Languages

The concept of evolution applies to languages. Languages evolve; it is impossible to establish a language once and for all. There will be continuous change, even if not immediately perceptible. However, these changes are not arbitrary; they are always limited and consistent across languages.

For example, changes in the perfect tense have occurred in Basque.

Evolution is change, not necessarily improvement. For instance, the evolution of the dodo led to its extinction. Changes do not inherently improve or worsen a language if they are integrated. Whether a change is considered invasive depends on its nature.

Language Learning and Natural Selection

Languages are diverse, but there will always be some ease in learning related languages. Speakers' choices determine whether a change is passed on to the next generation (similar to natural selection, where 90% might say "no" and 10% "yes").

Color Encoding in Languages

All languages encode colors, but not all languages classify them in the same way.

• Languages with two colors (black and white) may use modifiers (e.g., "black as night").
• Languages with three colors typically include red.
• Languages with four colors typically add yellow.
• Languages with five colors typically add blue or green.
• The languages with the most color terms have 11.