Human History: Eras, Evolution, and Prehistoric Civilizations

Understanding Human History

History studies the past of human beings through time and space. To establish the order and dates of historical events, we use chronology.

Prehistory: The Dawn of Humanity

Prehistory starts with the appearance of the first hominins and ends with the invention of writing.

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Tools, or utensils, were carved from approximately 2.5 million years ago.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Some tools were made of polished stone.

Metal Age

Tools were made of metal.

Historical Eras: From Writing to the Present

History starts with the invention of writing.

Ancient History

From the invention of writing until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Middle Ages

From 476 until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, or alternatively, the discovery of America.

The Modern Period

From either 1453 or 1492 until the beginning of the French Revolution.

The Contemporary Period

From 1789 until the present.

Key Adaptations of Early Hominins

• Bipedalism: This changed the position of the spinal cord. Hands were no longer used for walking, so they were free to make and use tools, and also to carry and throw.
• Cranial Changes: These consisted of a smaller jawbone and teeth, the appearance of a chin, and a vertical forehead. Most important of all was an increased brain size.
• Changes in the Hand: The most important was the development of the opposable thumb, which made holding objects easier.

Life in Prehistoric Ages

The Palaeolithic Age: Hunter-Gatherer Societies

Palaeolithic humans were hunter-gatherers, and their lifestyle was nomadic. They lived in caves during the winter and in huts when the weather was warmer. They hunted in groups and used every part of the animals. They made tools from stone and bone, and these human groups were small.

Palaeolithic Art

Cave Paintings

Paintings were made on the walls and ceilings of caves. The colors were obtained from natural elements.

Mobile Art

Portable artistic objects, such as animal figurines, ornaments, and amulets. The most notable are the Venus figurines.

Palaeolithic Religious Beliefs

The first humans worshipped natural elements. They practiced magic rituals to promote fertility and to help them in hunting; and they commemorated their dead.

The Neolithic Age: The Agricultural Revolution

Humans became producers with the introduction of farming, leading to a sedentary lifestyle and an increase in population. Specialized tools were made, including:

• Axes
• Sickles
• Pestles and mortars
• Hoes

Other crafts also developed, such as:

• Baskets
• Pottery
• Textiles

Neolithic Art and Craft

The most notable artistic achievement is in pottery, with different shapes and decorations.

Neolithic Religious Beliefs

Religious beliefs can be seen in the cult of the stars, and especially the Sun, because of its influence over crop growth.

The Metal Age: Innovation and Trade

Metalworking had its origin in the urban societies of the Fertile Crescent. The period can be divided into three stages:

• The Copper Age
• The Bronze Age
• The Iron Age

New inventions were introduced, and while the economy was still based on farming, work became more diverse as metal artisans appeared. Trade developed because it became necessary to exchange goods and resources.