Human Evolution Milestones: From Hominids to Civilization

Six million years ago, a warming period initiated the slow evolution of certain primates, leading to the first hominids. Lacking superior physical qualities, these early groups organized to hunt on the plains.

Physical and Cognitive Development

The initial evolutionary steps focused on achieving a straighter spine and freeing the hands. Maintaining an upright posture helped develop the brain. Hands were then used to create tools and control fire. The use of tools to soften food led to a reduction in the size of teeth and the chin. These changes collectively improved communication abilities, leading to the appearance of language.

Key Hominid Stages

• Australopithecus: Early bipedalism.
• Homo habilis: First tool use.
• Homo erectus: Achieved fully upright walking; first to speak; discovered fire.
• Homo neanderthalensis (Group 4): Practiced first burials and manufactured specialized tools.
• Homo sapiens sapiens: Produced the first examples of art and crafted tools from bone and horn.

The Neolithic Revolution and Agriculture

The spread of the Neolithic era originated from the Mediterranean Sea, following the courses of major Central rivers. Increased fertility spurred agricultural development, which also arose independently in several other regions:

• The Indus Valley (India)
• The Valley of the Huang He (China)
• Song Hong Valley (Vietnam)
• Central American plateaus (Mexico)
• The Andes (Peru)

Metallurgy Advances

Technological progress included the mastery of metals:

1. Copper
2. Bronze (created by craftsmen mixing copper with tin)
3. Iron

Mesopotamia: The First Urban Civilization

The first urban civilization arose around 4000 BC in lower Mesopotamia in Sumer. After the 3rd millennium, King Sargon occupied the low lands of Mesopotamia and established the Akkadian Kingdom. Around 1800 BC, the city of Babylon was imposed by King Hammurabi, establishing the Babylonian Empire. Around 1300 BC, the Assyrians created a vast empire stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean.

Egyptian Religion and Burial Practices

Key deities in the Egyptian pantheon included:

• Ra: Sun god.
• Ammon: God of Thebes.
• Osiris: God of the dead.
• Seth: God of darkness.
• Isis: Goddess of fertility.
• Horus: God of war.
• Anubis: God of the underworld.
• Thoth: Inventor of writing and god of wisdom.

Egyptian Tombs

Mastabas: First Egyptian tombs, rectangular buildings.

Hypogea: Large underground burial chambers, excavated and decorated with luxurious finishes.