Human Body Systems: Renal, Reproductive, and Cellular Functions

Kidney and Urinary Tract Conditions

Renal Failure Explained

Renal failure signifies insufficient filtration of blood at the Malpighian glomeruli. This leads to reduced urine production and inadequate elimination of excretory substances.

Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, seizures, and fainting. If untreated, it can lead to death.

Common causes include:

• Renal injuries
• Deficient blood pressure in the kidneys
• Urine retention due to an obstruction in the urinary tract

Nephritis: Kidney Inflammation

Nephritis is kidney inflammation resulting from infectious or non-infectious causes. Symptoms typically include pain, goosebumps, and fever.

Cystitis: Bladder Inflammation

Cystitis refers to inflammation of the bladder, generally caused by an infection. It results in a frequent and urgent desire to urinate, accompanied by pain and itching. Treatment typically involves antibiotics.

Urinary Incontinence Issues

Incontinence is the involuntary loss of urine. This can occur during contracting abdominal movements (like coughing or sneezing) or when the urge to urinate is felt.

Kidney Stones (Renal Calculi)

Kidney stones (or renal calculi) are solid structures formed by the build-up of substances normally dissolved in urine. Formation occurs when the concentration of these substances becomes excessively high, saturating the solution.

Stones can be composed of salt or uric acid and typically originate in the renal pelvis.

• Small stones: May be extracted through the urinary tracts.
• Large stones: Can cause renal colic, characterized by intense pain, a pale appearance, sweating, and vomiting.

Treatment recommendations often include rest and medication to help dissolve the stone. On other occasions, extraction using laser or other therapies may be necessary.

Reproductive System Functions

Human Breasts and Lactation

Human breasts contain mammary glands, which are typically only fully developed and functional in women. Although not essential for reproduction itself, they play a crucial role in supporting infant development after birth.

Breasts enlarge during puberty in response to estrogens. In late pregnancy, estrogens and progesterone prepare the mammary glands for milk production (lactation). During the breastfeeding period:

• Prolactin stimulates the production of milk.
• Oxytocin stimulates contractions in the lobules, ducts, and nipple to expel the milk.

These hormones are produced in response to the baby’s sucking.

Female Reproductive System Function

The female reproductive system produces eggs (ova) and is structured for internal fertilization and supporting pregnancy if fertilization occurs.

Male Reproductive System Function

The male reproductive system is adapted to produce and deliver male gametes (sperm) to the female reproductive tract.

Cellular Organelles and Waste Management

Lysosomes: Cellular Digestion

Lysosomes are specialized vesicles containing digestive enzymes. They perform intracellular digestion of various particles, such as pathogenic bacteria and old mitochondria, thereby removing toxic waste, damaged cellular components, and debris.

Golgi Body: Processing and Packaging

The Golgi body (also known as the Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex) is composed of stacks of flat membranous sacs (cisternae), from which vesicles emerge. It receives products from the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER). After a refining process within the Golgi, these products are packaged into vesicles and shipped to their final destinations (intracellular or extracellular).

Secretory cells, such as those in glands (e.g., sweat glands, pancreas cells), often possess highly developed Golgi bodies.

Understanding Excretion

Excretion is the biological process involving the elimination of metabolic waste products, produced by cells, from the blood and the body.

This process primarily involves the urinary system but also includes contributions from other organs and systems that help remove waste products.