History of the Roman Empire: Republic to Decline

The Roman Empire: Origins

The Roman Empire was a territory conquered by the city of Rome. The River Tiber forms a meander near its mouth around seven hills. The Etruscans, a people from the center of Italy, conquered the seven hills in the 7^th century BC and turned the small villages into a real city: Rome. This is the origin of the Roman Empire.

The Etruscan Monarchy and the Birth of the Republic

In the beginning, Rome was ruled by seven kings. The last monarchs were Etruscans. The king was assisted by a Senate. Rome clashed with different Etruscan cities, which it defeated. The Romans threw out the Etruscan monarchs and established the Republic in 509 BC.

A Period of Conquest

The citizens met in assemblies called Comitia to pass laws and to elect the different magistrates (300 former magistrates). Rome undertook the conquest of Italy and the territories of the Mediterranean. The Romans beat many people, including the Carthaginians led by Hannibal, whom they defeated in the Punic Wars.

Roman Society and Class Structure

Roman society was divided into distinct classes:

• The Patricians: They were the owners of the lands. They participated in the Senate and occupied the highest political and military positions.
• The Plebeians: They were the foreigners, immigrants, and small landowners, but at first, they could not participate in politics.
• The Slaves: They were prisoners of war or sons and daughters of other slaves. They did not have rights, though they could buy their freedom and then became freedmen.

The Crisis of the Republic

A period of struggles and corruption ensued. Some generals gained a lot of influence; this was the case of Julius Caesar, who managed to accumulate all power in his hands. He was assassinated in 43 BC, and his nephew Octavius seized power after a series of civil wars.

Key Roman Magistracies

1. Consul: Leads the troops.
2. Praetor: Chief of justice.
3. Censor: Takes the census.
4. Aedile: Local administration.
5. Quaestor: Handles finances.

The Emperor: Absolute Power and Augustus

The Senate gave Octavius, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, the title of Princeps and the name of Augustus, which means “divine.” Octavius Augustus took the title of Emperor and exercised all power personally; he ruled everything.

Later Crises and Decline

In the 2^nd century, the Roman Empire went through a serious military, political, and economic crisis.

Key pressures included:

• The Germanic people, called barbarians, who lived outside the borders of the Empire (the limes), applied pressure from the north. The Empire spent more and more money on the military, and taxes increased because the military expenses were increasingly high.
• The Persians applied pressure from the east.

The Eastern Roman Empire withstood invasions and lasted until 1453.