Hernán Cortés and the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

Spanish Conquest of Mexico

Early Contact with Moctezuma

Juan de Grijalva sailed from Santiago, Cuba, in April 1518, following the route established by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Córdoba had discovered the Yucatán Peninsula and returned with enough wealth to encourage another venture. Grijalva reached the limits of Moctezuma’s empire, obtaining gold from Aztec merchants and meeting Pinotl, an Aztec official. Pinotl delivered news of the Spaniards to Tenochtitlan. When Moctezuma heard the Spanish might soon arrive, he grew concerned, believing they might be associated with the return of the god Quetzalcoatl.

Cortés and the Quetzalcoatl Myth

The third Spanish expedition to Mexico was led by Hernán Cortés in 1519. He founded the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz in present-day Veracruz. Some days later, Moctezuma's ambassadors arrived, bearing gifts of gold and precious stones for Cortés. The ambassadors attempted to dissuade Cortés from traveling to Tenochtitlan to meet Moctezuma, but Cortés insisted, stating he had traveled a long way and would not leave until he met the emperor.

The March to Tenochtitlan

Aware that many tributary towns resented Aztec rule, Cortés encouraged them to rebel against their overlords. Cortés sent a ship to Emperor Charles V of Spain, seeking royal approval by describing the vastness and value of his discoveries. After initially battling the Tlaxcalans, the Spanish forged a crucial alliance with them. Driven partly by fear and uncertainty, Moctezuma eventually welcomed Cortés into his capital, Tenochtitlan, treating him with honor. Meanwhile, Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, sent an expedition under Pánfilo de Narváez to arrest Cortés for disobeying orders. Cortés defeated Narváez's forces, persuading many of the soldiers to join him, and returned to Tenochtitlan. During Cortés' absence, tensions escalated, leading to conflict. The Aztec nobility eventually deposed Moctezuma (who died shortly after, under disputed circumstances), elected a new leader, Cuitláhuac, and launched fierce attacks against the Spanish invaders. Cortés and his forces were forced to flee Tenochtitlan during the Noche Triste (Night of Sorrows). In December 1520, Cortés returned with Spanish reinforcements and a large army of indigenous allies, primarily Tlaxcalans, determined to conquer the city. He besieged Tenochtitlan, leading months of brutal fighting. Ravaged by disease (smallpox) and warfare, the Aztecs, now led by Cuauhtémoc after Cuitláhuac died of smallpox, eventually surrendered in August 1521.

The Aftermath of Conquest

From the Valley of Mexico, the Spanish conquest extended in all directions. Expeditions launched from Mexico led to the conquest of regions including Honduras, Guatemala, and Yucatán. Cortés initially governed the former Aztec Empire, renamed New Spain, receiving tributes from towns and provinces. The Spanish Crown rewarded him with the title of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. However, his political power waned as the Crown established more direct royal authority, appointing officials to govern New Spain. Cortés died in Spain in 1547, somewhat embittered by his diminished authority in the lands he had conquered.