Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy: A Historical Overview

Hellenistic Philosophy (4th - 3rd Century BC)

Spread of Hellenism:

Following Alexander the Great's empire and the subsequent tyrannies after his death, philosophers shifted their focus towards the pursuit of happiness. Major post-Aristotelian schools of ethics emerged, including:

1. Epicureanism
2. Stoicism
3. Skepticism

In Alexandria, under the Ptolemaic dynasty, philosophy and science flourished with figures like Aristarchus of Samos, Archimedes, and Euclid. This marked a shift away from Athens as the center of intellectual activity. While the Academy and the Lyceum continued, no major figures emerged after Plato and Aristotle.

1. Epicureanism:

Founded by Epicurus of Samos, this school focused on ethics, physics, and logic.

Key tenets:

• Happiness: Defined as pleasure (ataraxia: tranquility of the soul, aponia: absence of pain) achieved through freedom from disturbance.
• Overcoming Fears: Epicureans believed that fate does not exist (atomistic physics), the soul is not immortal, and gods do not interfere in human affairs.
• Logic: Emphasized feelings, desires, and impressions as genuine indicators of truth and certainty, placing good and evil beyond reason.

2. Stoicism:

Founded by Zeno of Citium, this school met in the Stoa Poikile (painted porch), giving it its name. Stoicism can be divided into three periods:

• Old Stoa (Zeno, Chrysippus)
• Middle Stoa (Panaetius, Posidonius)
• Roman Stoa (Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus)

Key tenets:

• Ethics: Advocated for apathy (indifference to adversity) and acceptance of fate (despite its deterministic nature). Happiness was seen as living in harmony with nature and reason.
• Cosmopolitanism: Believed in the interconnectedness of all humans and emphasized duty guided by logos (reason).
• Physics: Held a deterministic and fatalistic view of the universe guided by a universal logos (pneuma). The soul was considered immortal and eventually dissolved back into the pneuma.
• Freedom: Defined as understanding and accepting the necessity that governs the world.

3. Skepticism:

Founded by Pyrrho of Elis, Skepticism emerged as a reaction against the dogmatism of Epicureanism and Stoicism. Key figures include Carneades, Aenesidemus, and Sextus Empiricus.

Key tenets:

• Nihilism: Believed that senses and sensory knowledge are subjective and deceptive. Universal knowledge is impossible to attain due to unreliable data and the potential for faulty reasoning.
• Happiness (aphasia): Achieved through refraining from making judgments (epoche: suspension of judgment). Skeptics believed that accepting any epistemology was impossible.

Roman Philosophy

Rise of Rome:

Following the disintegration of Alexander's empire, Rome rose to prominence, first as a Republic and later as an Empire. Roman philosophy was characterized by:

Eclecticism:

A blend of Roman traditions and Greek culture.

Continuation of Greek Thought:

Figures like Lucretius (Epicureanism), Seneca (Stoicism), and Sextus Empiricus (Skepticism) continued Greek philosophical traditions. However, no original philosophical schools emerged in Rome.

Law as a Unique Contribution:

Cicero's work on natural law, emphasizing the importance of customs and everyday practices, stands out as a significant Roman contribution to philosophy.

Syncretism:

The fusion of Greco-Roman traditions with Christianity.

Emergence of Christianity:

Led to a revival of mystical philosophies like Pythagoreanism and Platonism. Stoicism also found common ground with Christian thought.

New Schools:

• Jewish-Alexandrian School (1st Century BC): Represented by Philo of Alexandria, this school sought to connect Jewish tradition with Greek philosophy.
• Neopythagorean School (1st Century AD):
• Neoplatonic School (3rd Century AD): Key figures include Plotinus, Iamblichus, and Proclus.

Christian Philosophy

Neoplatonism's Influence:

Neoplatonism exerted a profound influence on early Christian thought.

Reason vs. Faith:

Greek philosophy emphasized reason and free inquiry, while Christianity centered on belief, faith, and divinely revealed truth. Christian philosophers sought to reconcile these two approaches.

Philosophy in Service of Religion:

Christian thinkers believed that truth was already revealed and their task was to understand and interpret it. This led to the development of Patristics.

Patristics:

Early Christian theologians, such as St. Augustine (who transmitted Neoplatonism) and Dionysius the Areopagite, developed the doctrine of the Church and interpreted the Gospels.

Augustinianism or Neoplatonism:

This school of thought remained influential until the 12th century when Aristotle's works were reintroduced to the West through Arabic translations. St. Thomas Aquinas later synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.

Scholasticism:

This term refers to the Christian philosophy of the Middle Ages and derives from the monastic and cathedral schools where it was taught.

Rise of Universities:

Secular centers of learning with their own standards and autonomy emerged, expanding beyond the capacity of smaller clerical schools. Notable universities included Bologna and Paris (11th century), and Oxford, Naples, and Salamanca (13th century).

New Religious Orders:

• Franciscans: Followers of St. Augustine and Neoplatonism.
• Dominicans: Followers of St. Thomas Aquinas and Aristotelianism.