The Great War and the Rise of the Soviet Union

Causes of World War I

The outbreak of the Great War was driven by militarism (the arms race) and the alliance system, consisting of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Nationalism fueled tensions, particularly between Germany and France, and Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Serbian expansionism, the rejection of the ultimatum, and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand were critical triggers. Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum with German support (the "blank cheque"), while Russia promoted Serbian Pan-Slavism, sought war against Germany, and mobilized its army. Germany faced tensions with France and the UK and eventually invaded Belgium. France sought revenge against Germany and was allied with Russia, while the UK defended Belgium and sought war with Germany.

The Outbreak and Course of the Great War

The conflict escalated rapidly in 1914:

• 5 July: Germany provides the "blank cheque" to Austria-Hungary.
• 23 July: The ultimatum is issued to Serbia.
• 28 July: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
• 30 July: Russia mobilizes its army.
• 1 August: Germany declares war on Russia.
• 3 August: Germany attacks Belgium.
• 4 August: The UK declares war on Germany.

The War of Movement featured the Schlieffen Plan, intended to defeat France via Belgium in six weeks before turning to Russia. However, Russia mobilized in just ten days, and the UK defended Belgium. Germany lost at the Marne but won at Tannenberg. By 1915–1916, the conflict shifted to trench warfare along a 700km front, including the bloody battles of Verdun and the Somme. Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, while Italy, Romania, and Japan joined the Entente. In April 1917, the USA joined the war. On 9 November 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, and the armistice was signed on 11 November.

Consequences and the Treaty of Versailles

World War I was a total war involving colonies and warfare across the sky, sea, and land. Civilians faced extreme hunger while working in factories as the economy focused entirely on the war effort; during this time, women won increased importance. The consequences were devastating: 10 million deaths, 20 million wounded, and 40 million mobilized. Nine new countries were created, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Poland, Finland, Lithuania, and Latvia. The war also saw the spread of Communism and the creation of the League of Nations (LON).

Germany accepted the armistice based on Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine, parts of Poland, and Lithuania. The Rhineland was demilitarized, and the Saar was occupied by France for 15 years. German colonies were controlled by the LON. Germany was declared guilty of the war and forced to pay reparations. Their army was limited, with no air force, tanks, or submarines, and they were initially not allowed to join the LON. Other treaties included Saint Germain (Austria), Trianon (Hungary), Neuilly (Bulgaria), and Sèvres (Ottoman Empire).

The Russian Revolution and the Fall of the Tsar

Russia was an absolute monarchy under Tsar Nicholas II, who led an autocratic regime. Political unrest grew due to unfulfilled promises, a lack of elections, and the absence of political parties. Repression was common, with police persecuting enemies. The economy was semi-feudal with hard living conditions and late industrialization. The opposition was split between the Mensheviks (advocating a moderate transition to socialism) and the Bolsheviks (radical supporters of a proletarian dictatorship).

The 1905 Revolution was caused by the Russo-Japanese War, an economic crisis, and protests. Despite violent repression, the Tsar was forced to create the Duma. However, the February Revolution of 1917 saw general strikes on 27 February due to discontent with WWI. The Duma had no power, the Tsar lost army support, and he eventually abdicated. A Provisional Government was formed to implement liberal measures.

The Rise of the Bolsheviks and the Soviet State

Vladimir Lenin returned and issued the April Thesis, promising "bread, peace, and land." During the October Revolution, amid the Kornilov coup, the Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace, overthrew the Provisional Government and the Duma, and formed a Revolutionary Government. They withdrew Russia from WWI, began repressions against enemies, and executed the Tsar.

During the Russian Civil War (1918–1921), the Red Army (Bolsheviks) fought the White Army (counter-revolutionaries). Under Lenin’s government, the Duma was dissolved, strikes were abolished, and banks and lands were nationalized. The Cheka persecuted enemies under a Communist dictatorship. War Communism was implemented to win the war, involving the seizure of crops to feed the army. This was followed by the NEP (New Economic Policy), which allowed peasants some economic freedom and international exchange to recover the economy.

Following Lenin's death in 1924, the Five-Year Plans began in 1927. These favored heavy industry and established Kolkhoz (agrarian cooperatives) and Sovkhoz (state-owned farms), effectively ending private property while improving the military and the economy.