Government and Society in the Roman Republic

System of Government: Republic

The Roman Republic was based on the choice of citizens who elected magistrates responsible for the organization and functioning of the city. Citizens participated in elections through assemblies:

Assemblies and Elections

• Curiae: Granted imperium to senior magistrates and resolved private matters.
• Centuries: Chose the higher magistrates and intervened in matters of war and peace.
• Tribes: Chose lower magistrates and military tribunes. The Plebeian Assembly, formed by commoners, elected the tribunes of the people who defended them.

The Candidate

The term Candidate comes from the white toga (toga candida) worn by those presenting themselves for political office.

Characteristics of Magistrates

Roman magistrates typically served for an annual term, held office collectively (with colleagues), and were subject to responsibility after their term.

Higher Magistrates

• Two Consuls (most important): Held supreme command (imperium), exercised power (potestas), and imposed punishments (coercitio).
• Two Praetors: Held judicial imperium.
• Two Censors: Carried out the census every 5 years, monitored public morals, compiled the list of Senate members, and could expel those who behaved badly.

If the state was in danger, a Dictator could be appointed; they relinquished their powers once the danger passed.

Lower Magistrates

• Four Aediles: Responsible for surveillance, public works, and games.
• Two Quaestors: Responsible for finance.
• Ten Tribunes of the Plebeians: Protected commoners.

Senatus Consultum

A Senatus Consultum was a decree or resolution of the Senate, which magistrates were expected to follow.

The Senate

The Senate was an institution composed of 300 members, appointed by the Censor, who served for life. Its members were typically former higher magistrates. The Senate advised on matters of religion, finance, foreign relations, and the conduct of magistrates. The Senate exerted influence through the auctoritas patrum (authorizing laws passed by assemblies) and the consilium (advice given to magistrates). In the Senate, the presiding magistrate would read the agenda, and discussions would take place.

Social Struggles

Political positions in the early Republic were largely reserved for Patricians. The first major conflict (494 BC) led to the creation of the office of Tribune of the Plebs. The Law of the Twelve Tables (451 BC) was a major advance in written law, covering civil and criminal matters. However, intermarriage between Patricians and Plebeians was prohibited until the Lex Canuleia (445 BC). Another struggle concerned access to political office. The Lex Licinia Sextia (367 BC) opened the consulship to Plebeians. Land distribution from conquered territories was also a source of conflict.