Global Shifts: Unification, Industry, and Innovation

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The Congress of Vienna, held in 1814-1815, aimed to restore stability in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Key outcomes included:

• France returned to its pre-Revolutionary frontiers.
• States bordering France were strengthened to prevent future French expansion.
• Territorial adjustments were made involving Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
• The formation of alliances such as the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance.

Rise of Nationalism

Nationalism is a strong feeling of belonging to a nation. This sentiment grew significantly among the populations of invaded countries during this period. Often, political boundaries did not accurately reflect the language and culture of the people within them, fueling nationalist movements.

Key Historical Definitions

• Zollverein: A free trade area established in 1834 among German states, eliminating internal customs duties.
• German Confederation: An association of 39 German states created by the Congress of Vienna, intended to facilitate their eventual unification.
• Second Reich (German Empire): King Wilhelm I, with Otto von Bismarck, accelerated the unification process of Germany through military actions, including three wars starting in 1862, leading to the establishment of the German Empire in 1871.

Stages of German Unification

1. 1864: Danish-Prussian War
   Prussia invaded and annexed two states (Schleswig and Holstein) ruled by Denmark, which had a mostly German population.
2. 1866: Austro-Prussian War
   Prussia fought against its great rival, Austria, in the Austro-Prussian War, invading the Austrian Duchy of Holstein. This war solidified Prussian dominance among the German states.
3. 1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War
   Otto von Bismarck formed an alliance with the southern German states. France opposed the growing power of a unified Germany, which led to the Franco-Prussian War. This conflict completed the unification process.

The Norfolk Four-Course System

The Norfolk Four-Course System was an agricultural innovation where land was divided into four parts and rotated over four years. This system offered several advantages:

• Clover was used to replenish nutrients in the soil.
• Turnips and clover also served as feed for livestock, supporting a larger animal population.

Types of Corporate Groups

• Cartel: A group of different companies from the same industry that reach an agreement to control production or the price of a product.
• Trust: A group of companies dominated by a single, larger company.
• Holding Company: A company that controls various other companies, often by owning a majority of their stock.

Japan's Meiji Restoration and Industrialization

For centuries, Japan remained largely isolated from other countries. This changed dramatically when Emperor Meiji ended feudalism and initiated the Meiji Era (1868-1912). This period marked rapid modernization and industrialization, characterized by:

• The acquisition of modern technologies.
• The training of Japanese technicians in Western universities.
• The extensive use of foreign consultants.

Key industries in Japan during this time included the textile industry and heavy industry, the latter often linked to the demands of Japanese military expansion.

Thomas Alva Edison: An American Innovator

Thomas Alva Edison, born in Milan, Ohio, was a prolific inventor. At the age of 12, he built his first laboratory in his garage. Throughout his life, he made thousands of inventions. He died in New Jersey, leaving behind a legacy as one of history's most important inventors; his contributions include the practical electric light bulb.