Global Dynamics: Earth, Population, and Urban Systems

Globalisation: Economic Integration & Causes

Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of national economies into a worldwide market economy. Key causes include:

• Progress in Telecommunications: Enables real-time information exchange across the globe.
• Improved Transport: Facilitates the global transfer of goods and people efficiently.
• Widespread Capitalism & Neoliberal Ideals: Promotes market-driven economic policies and free trade.

Earth's External Structure: Layers & Components

The Earth's external structure is composed of several interconnected layers:

• Lithosphere: Includes the crust and upper mantle; it is the Earth's solid outer layer.
• Hydrosphere: Encompasses all water on Earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and ice.
• Atmosphere: The gaseous layer surrounding Earth, essential for life.
  • Troposphere (0-10 km): Where weather phenomena occur.
  • Stratosphere (10-50 km): Contains the ozone layer, protecting against harmful solar radiation.
  • Mesosphere (50-80 km): Temperature decreases significantly (down to -75°C).
  • Ionosphere (80-500 km): Characterized by ionized gases.
  • Exosphere (above 500 km): The outermost layer, gradually fading into space.

Earth's Internal Structure: Core, Mantle, Crust

The Earth's interior is divided into distinct layers:

• The Crust: The outermost solid layer, comprising continents and ocean floors.
• The Mantle: The intermediate layer, largely solid but capable of slow flow. (Note: The lithosphere is formed by the crust and the upper mantle.)
• The Core: The Earth's innermost layer, composed primarily of iron and nickel. It consists of a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.

Understanding Population Pyramids & Types

Population pyramids are graphical representations showing the distribution of various age groups and sexes in a population. There are three main types:

Expansive Population Pyramid

• High birth rate.
• High death rate.
• Positive natural increase.
• Life expectancy is not high, with fewer elderly individuals.
• Common in: Developing countries.

Stationary Population Pyramid

• Medium birth rate.
• Medium death rate.
• Positive natural increase.
• Life expectancy is higher than in expansive pyramids.
• Common in: Developed countries with stable growth.

Contractive Population Pyramid

• Low birth rate.
• Low death rate.
• Negative natural increase.
• High life expectancy.
• Common in: Developed countries with declining populations.

Types of Urban Agglomerations & Examples

Urban agglomerations describe various forms of urban settlement patterns:

• Metropolitan Area: An urban area where a large central city merges with surrounding dependent cities. The central city provides employment and services, while satellite cities offer residential areas, industries, housing, and airports. (e.g., *Greater London*, *Paris*)
• Conurbation: An urban area formed by the growth and coalescence of two or more cities of similar importance. (e.g., *Liverpool-Manchester*)
• Urban Region: An urban agglomeration on a regional scale, formed by the growth of several distinct, yet interconnected, cities. (e.g., *The Ruhr Region*)
• Megalopolis: A supra-regional urban area formed by a succession of various urban agglomerations, often stretching over vast distances. (e.g., *Boston-Washington Corridor*)