Global Crises and Totalitarianism: WWII, Depression, Revolutions

Origins of the Second World War (WWII)

The origins of the Second World War can be found in the world order created after the First World War. The Treaty of Versailles caused feelings of humiliation and resentment among the Germans and Italians, who refused to accept the restrictions imposed.

Totalitarian Regimes and Expansionism

As we have seen, the fascist regimes in Italy and Nazi Germany developed expansionist policies that aspired to expand their territorial boundaries and challenged the consensus established within the League of Nations (LN). To achieve this, they strengthened their armies, encouraged militarism, and became involved in an intense arms race.

Escalation of Aggression in the 1930s

In the 1930s, the authoritarian states began a series of hostile attacks against other countries:

• In Asia, Japan sought to expand its territory at the expense of China. It occupied Manchuria in 1931 and invaded China in 1937.
• In Africa, Italy took possession of Ethiopia in 1935 as part of its mission to extend its colonial empire. In Europe, it also invaded Albania.
• Italy and Germany took part in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), supplying the insurgent forces with soldiers and weapons, while France and Great Britain chose not to get involved (Non-Intervention Pact).
• Germany developed a policy of territorial expansion aimed at creating a vast empire (the Third Reich) of lands inhabited by Germanic peoples. In 1936, in violation of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland. In March 1938, it used military force to occupy Austria (Anschluss), and in September demanded Czechoslovakia hand over the Sudetenland, which was populated by a significant German minority.

The Weakness of Democracies and Appeasement

In light of the authoritarian regimes' hostile policies, the democracies attempted to insulate themselves from the world's problems (US isolationism) or focus their attention on domestic issues (growing unemployment, social unrest, etc.). The weakness of the democracies and the League of Nations' failure to respond to Nazi and fascist hostilities encouraged their aggression and eventually led to war. The Munich Conference (1938) was convened by Hitler following protests by France, Great Britain, and other powers over his policy of expansionism. It ended with the democracies accepting Hitler's promises to expand no further.

Formation of Alliances Leading to War

This expansionist policy was based on a series of mutually supportive international treaties:

• In 1936, Germany entered into the Rome-Berlin Axis alliance with Italy, renewed in 1939 as the Pact of Steel.
• In November 1936, Germany entered into the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan.
• To prevent the USSR from joining forces with France and Great Britain and helping Poland, Hitler signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) with Stalin.

Following the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, Hitler began the invasion of Poland (September 1939). The Allies declared war on Germany, which marked the beginning of the Second World War.

Development of World War II (1939–1945)

Axis Victories (1939–1941)

Following the invasion of Poland (September 1939), Hitler launched Blitzkrieg, or 'lightning war', which consisted of using armored divisions (the Panzer divisions) and strong aerial support. This type of warfare made surprise attacks and quick advances possible. Poland collapsed after three weeks, and the country was divided between Germany and the USSR according to the terms of the Nazi-Soviet Pact.

In 1940, the German army invaded most of Western Europe (Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern and western France). By that summer, Great Britain was the only country to have resisted German occupation. To prepare for a possible assault on Britain, the Luftwaffe, Germany's air force, bombed British ports and cities in what was known as the Battle of Britain. Great Britain resisted the attack, and Hitler was forced to abort the mission. He ordered the blockade of the British Isles and launched the Battle of the Atlantic to cut off British supply lines. The German African Corps (under Rommel's command) also conquered North Africa. Yugoslavia and Greece fell in April 1941.

Key turning points in 1941:

• In June 1941, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa and attacked the USSR, quickly reaching the gates of Moscow and Leningrad. This was extremely significant, as the USSR joined the Allied forces.
• In December 1941, Japan destroyed the US fleet in Pearl Harbor, leading to the United States entering the war.

Allied Offensives and Victory (1942–1945)

After the USSR and the United States entered the conflict, the war took a decisive turn in 1942. Key Allied victories included:

• Pacific Theater: The Americans stopped Japanese advances (Battles of Midway and Guadalcanal) and began reconquering occupied territories.
• North Africa: The British defeated the Germans at El Alamein. General Eisenhower landed in French Africa and defeated the Germans in Tunisia.
• Eastern Front: The German assault on Stalingrad was Hitler's first major failure. The city withstood several months of siege, after which Field Marshal Paulus surrendered.

The liberation of Europe was hastened by the Normandy landings (June 1944) by British and American troops, which brought massive numbers of soldiers and weapons into France. Allied forces advanced from the west, liberating France and entering Germany. Simultaneously, the Russians moved in from the east, pushing the Germans out of Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. German cities were subjected to heavy Allied bombings. Both Allied armies occupied Germany and met at the River Elbe on April 26, 1945. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, and on May 8, Germany surrendered.

Conclusion of the Pacific War

In the Pacific, the Americans had reconquered most of the territories occupied by the Japanese. However, Japan continued its fanatical defense, symbolized by the kamikazes. To force Japan to surrender, US President Truman decided to use a new weapon: the atomic bomb, which was dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. The level of destruction was unprecedented, and approximately 150,000 people died. Faced with this nuclear horror, Japan surrendered on September 2, marking the end of the Second World War.

Consequences of World War II

Human and Economic Losses

The Second World War left behind a trail of devastation and horror. Over 50 million people died in the war, the largest proportion of whom were from the USSR, followed by Germany and Poland. The capacity for destruction was immense, affecting both military fronts and the civilian population. Civilian victims represented more than half the total number of deaths (compared to only 5% in the First World War).

There was also extensive destruction of property. Conversely, countries that had stayed out of the dispute and became suppliers experienced economic growth. Population displacements continued in the post-war period, with approximately thirty million displaced Europeans wandering the continent. Europe was materially and morally destroyed. Two new global powers emerged: the United States and the USSR.

Moral and Ideological Impact

The brutality of military action led people to question the moral and political values of European civilization. Human rights had been systematically violated, and a culture of violence and cruelty had become established over the course of six years. The discovery of the concentration camps and practices of extermination brought to light the scale of the Nazi atrocities (the Holocaust). The atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were interpreted as a global apocalypse. Furthermore, evidence of the massacres carried out by the Soviets in Poland raised further ideological doubts.

Post-War Peace Conferences

The three major Allies (Great Britain, the United States, and the USSR) met in a series of conferences to determine the post-war order:

• Tehran Conference (November 1943): Attended by Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. They took joint military measures to speed up the end of the war.
• Yalta Conference (February 1945): Agreed upon denazification and the partition of Germany and Austria into four occupied zones, including the division of Berlin and Vienna; the organization of democratic elections in liberated countries; and the creation of an international peacekeeping body: the United Nations.
• Potsdam Conference (August 1945): Attended by the new leaders (Attlee, Truman, and Stalin). Agreements were reached to return all European territories annexed by Germany, separate Austria, dismantle the military industry, and prosecute Nazi leaders.

Finally, peace treaties with Germany's other allies were drawn up during the Paris Peace Conference in 1946.

The United Nations (UN)

The UN was established to replace the discredited League of Nations. Today, it assembles nearly every country in the world and carries out humanitarian missions and mediation efforts in armed conflicts.

Founding Principles of the UN

The new organization sought to ensure international peace and security between nations. It established the sovereign equality of all member states and promoted the maintenance of peace and the right of peoples to self-determination. Based on these principles, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948.

Governing Bodies of the UN

The UN structure includes:

• General Assembly: All member states are represented and have voting rights. This body issues recommendations and holds moral authority.
• Security Council: The highest executive body, comprising 15 members. The major powers (the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China) are permanent members with veto power, ensuring the predominance of the great powers. The Council's decisions are compulsory for all member states.
• Secretary-General: Based in New York, responsible for the institution's ongoing administration and coordination. Nominated by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly for a five-year term.

The Work of UN Agencies

In addition to representative and governing bodies, the UN has specialized agencies available to all member states:

• The International Court of Justice at The Hague.
• The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): The main body for promoting social and economic development, controlling specialized agencies focused on health, childhood, development, and refugees.

While the UN's political role is limited by its inability to influence the world's major powers, the work of its agencies is extremely important in defending human rights. Examples include:

• UNHCR: Dedicated to protecting refugees.
• UNICEF: Works for disadvantaged children.
• UNESCO: Protects cultural heritage.

Causes of the Russian Revolution

An Autocratic Empire (Tsarism)

In the early 20th century, the tsars ruled a vast empire where the system of absolute monarchy continued. Politically, Tsarism was an autocracy. The Tsar had absolute power: he ruled by decree, was not subject to any constitution, and did not have to answer to a parliament. A loyal bureaucracy and a powerful army controlled the empire, while the Orthodox Church was one of the great ideological pillars of the regime.

Feudal Agriculture and Dependent Industry

The economy and social structures of the Russian Empire were the most backward in Europe. Agriculture was the main economic activity, and land was controlled by an immensely powerful and wealthy aristocracy. Feudalism, which had disappeared from most of Europe, continued in the Russian Empire. The majority of the population were peasants living in miserable conditions. Personal servitude lasted until 1865, and although the power of the landed nobility was officially abolished, their influence remained intact.

In some areas (Moscow, St. Petersburg, the Urals, etc.), industrialization had begun, driven largely by foreign capital. A large industrial proletariat emerged, working in large factories for very low wages. Almost half of all workers were employed in companies with more than 500 workers.

Political Opposition to Tsarism

Opposition to the regime first developed among the peasants, but they did not offer any clear alternatives. Marxist ideas spread among industrial workers. In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was founded, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin). The party soon split into two wings, including the Mensheviks, who were unconvinced by the Tsar's reforms and favored a revolutionary path. In the early 20th century, bourgeois liberal parties like the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) began to appear in Russia. Further to the left, the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs or Esers) was influential among the peasants.

The 1905 Revolution

In 1905, a revolution broke out demanding the end of autocracy. Key events included a peaceful demonstration known as Bloody Sunday. During this period, peasants and soldiers organized themselves into Soviets (councils).

The Crisis of the First World War

Russia entered the First World War in 1914, but it was not prepared for such a long, hard, and expensive war. Its army was not ready, its transport system was inefficient, and its arms industry could not cope with demand. As economic resources were devoted to war, famine appeared in cities, spreading unrest among workers, peasants, and soldiers. All of this made Tsar Nicholas II very unpopular. In 1916, at the height of the war, those who opposed Tsarism saw the chance to end the regime and take power.

The United States: From Prosperity to Crisis

The Roaring Twenties (1918–1929)

Economic growth in the United States continued for the decade following the end of the war. This was the decade of prosperity, the Roaring Twenties, where the American way of life became a global model. Economic growth was based on a comprehensive transformation of manufacturing processes, dominated by technical innovation. Taylorism and Fordism helped increase productivity and reduce costs.

The rise in workers' wages, advertising campaigns, hire purchase (installment plans), and bank loans paved the way for an era of mass consumption and a huge stock market boom, characterized by a steady rise in demand and share value.

The Paradox of Prosperity

The prosperity of the 1920s did not benefit everyone equally, and underlying issues began to surface between 1926 and 1927:

• Agricultural prices increased less rapidly than industrial prices. Farmers who had borrowed money to increase production realized the market could not absorb all their output. Stock accumulated, prices fell, and many farmers lost everything.
• Traditional industries stagnated, and entire regions missed out on modernization.
• The rise in wages was much lower than corporate profits and production, resulting in low purchasing power among the general population.

Overproduction was rapidly becoming a critical problem for the US economy.

The Wall Street Crash and Great Depression

Many shareholders knew that the prices of shares were much higher than their real value. Mistrust spread among investors, and on October 24, 1929 (Black Thursday), a huge selling wave hit the New York Stock Exchange. Suddenly, everyone wanted to sell their shares, and no one wanted to buy them. Their value plummeted, triggering the Wall Street Crash (the Stock Market Crash) of 1929.

Consequences included:

• Many investors were ruined.
• Panic spread, leading citizens to flock to the banks to withdraw their money.
• Banks were forced to close due to a lack of funds, as they could not collect loans provided to individuals and insolvent businesses. The Crash led to the failure of many banks.

In a few years, the crisis affected industries, trade, and agriculture, causing a widespread economic recession known as the Great Depression. As unemployment increased (rising to 13 million in 1932), consumption declined, and many factories closed. Many families fell into poverty.

The New Deal Response to the Crisis

The US and most European countries adopted measures to reduce the effects of the widespread crisis and promote economic recovery. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, elected in 1932, introduced the New Deal—a series of political programs based on the ideas of economist J. M. Keynes, who advocated state intervention in the economy. Its main areas of action were:

• Economic: The government helped private companies in difficulty, created public companies in sectors without incentives for private investment, and ordered agricultural stock to be destroyed. The state also established stricter control over banks by monitoring their deposits and forcing them to offer low-interest loans.
• Social: To fight unemployment, the state promoted a major public works program (roads, reservoirs, etc.), encouraged companies to increase wages, and reduced the working week to 40 hours.

Global Economic Crisis of 1929

The Cycle of Prosperity and Stagnation

Prosperity in the United States in the 1920s was caused in large part by the profits generated by high product sales during the First World War and the huge number of high-interest loans that had to be repaid by European countries. It was logical that company shares, which were making huge profits, increased in value on the stock market. However, after a while, neither agriculture nor industry could sell so many products, partly because workers' wages made it impossible for the steady growth in consumption to continue, despite the use of credit.

Stock Market Speculation and the Bubble

What took place was a speculative bubble—a disconnection between the real economy and the productive economy. The increase in share value occurred due to the conviction among investors that they could obtain significant profits simply by buying and reselling. There was a lot of money to invest, and people increasingly turned to credit to invest in the stock exchange. Shell companies (often referred to as 'brass plate companies') were created, and their complex operations led to rumors that their shares were in high demand, causing their value to rise immediately. If these shares were sold within a few months, huge amounts of money were earned without anyone realizing what the companies did, what they sold, or that they were not actually producing any goods.

From Stock Market Collapse to Banking Crisis

The first consequence of the stock market collapse in October 1929 was a banking crisis. The capitalist system relies on money in circulation and credit. Banks do not hold clients' deposits entirely in cash; they invest it in the stock market or lend it to individuals (investors, companies, etc.) with interest. When the money disappears, either because banks have lost it or they cannot recover it, the whole economic system collapses, leading to an industrial, commercial, and agricultural crisis.

The Globalization of the Crisis

The crisis spread rapidly from the USA to the rest of the world. The banking crisis in the United States immediately caused credit to be reduced, funds deposited in European banks to be withdrawn, and American companies to reduce their investments. US imports plummeted, causing world trade to suffer a major recession. The US crisis of the 1930s dragged down many countries in Europe and the rest of the world, leading to widespread bank bankruptcies, a decline in production and trade, and a massive rise in unemployment.

The Crisis of Democracy: Fascism in Italy

Italy was the first European country with a parliamentary democracy where the consequences of the war led to a rise in nationalist and authoritarian political movements, resulting in the establishment of an undemocratic and dictatorial system.

Post-War Disappointment and Instability

The peace agreements were a major disappointment, as the Allies agreed to give Italy Trentino, Trieste, and Istria but not Dalmatia and Fiume, as had been agreed in the Treaty of London (1915). Political instability was severe: no political party under the monarchy of Victor Emmanuel III was able to win a sufficient majority, resulting in five different governments between 1919 and 1922.

The human and economic consequences of the war were severe (700,000 men killed, many industries destroyed). The economic crisis created great social tensions. Workers' strikes with revolutionary goals, encouraged by the Soviet example, spread throughout Northern Italy.

The Rise of Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party

Benito Mussolini emerged from this crisis. In 1919, he created the Fasci, a paramilitary group that wore black shirts and fought to stop the rise of the labor movement by violently attacking labor unions and their leaders. In 1921, the Fasci became the National Fascist Party, presented as the most effective remedy to stop the revolutionary movement in Italy.

The party's program was based on building a strong state to guarantee private property and pursue an expansionist foreign policy. It was supported by the petty bourgeoisie, the Catholic Church, King Victor Emmanuel III, and financed by large agricultural and industrial landowners.

Despite achieving only 22 deputies in the 1922 elections, Mussolini demanded control of the government, capitalizing on the government's lack of control over the general strike of socialist and anarchist unions. To show his strength, he organized the March on Rome, in which 300,000 Blackshirts took part. In October 1922, the monarch, under pressure from conservative forces, appointed Mussolini head of government.

Establishment and Ideology of the Fascist State

Between 1922 and 1924, Benito Mussolini restricted freedom and persecuted opponents (Socialists, Communists, and Christian Democrats) while maintaining the pretense of a parliamentary regime. After Mussolini won the 1924 elections through violence, he announced the establishment of an authoritarian regime.

Under Fascism:

• The state and the National Fascist Party united, giving Mussolini total power.
• Political parties were banned, and Parliament was replaced with the Chamber of Fasci.
• Strikes were banned, and unions were replaced with cooperative unions (including representatives of workers, employers, and the state).
• The economy was controlled, advocating for self-sufficiency (autarky) and supporting private enterprises with military orders and heavy subsidies.
• The state exercised strict control over society and the media (radio, press, cinema, etc.). An extremely conservative view of the family and the role of women was imposed.
• Mussolini signed a concordat with the Holy See to restore the authority of the Catholic Church in Italy.

Mussolini promised the creation of an Italian Empire that would control the Mediterranean, similar to the ancient Roman Empire. With this goal, he invaded Ethiopia in 1935 to expand Italian colonies in North Africa.

The Nazi Regime: A Totalitarian System

Establishing Totalitarian Control

After 1934, the Nazi Party and the state united under the sole authority of Hitler, the Führer. Individual freedoms and rights were abolished. The dissolution of political parties and trade unions was decreed. Only the NSDAP (Nazi Party) was allowed, and all workers were forced to join the only trade union, the German Labour Front.

The regime enforced control through:

• Purging public administration and forcing judges to submit to the will of the party.
• Taking over the police by Nazi paramilitary groups, mainly the SS.
• Creating the Gestapo (secret police) in 1934, led by Himmler, responsible for repressing opponents and controlling public opinion.

Enforcement of Nazi Ideology and Racism

To form the Nazi state, absolute ideological unity was needed. The Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, headed by Joseph Goebbels, was created to guarantee a culture and mindset based on racist and nationalist ideas. Science and culture (books, newspapers, radio, cinema, etc.) were 'nazified', destroying intellectual freedom.

Nazism devoted huge efforts to the education of young people. The education system was reorganized and politicized: teachers were purged, and censorship was introduced in classrooms and textbooks.

Maintaining the racial purity of German society involved the persecution and elimination of all minorities considered inferior (Romani, Jews, and mentally and physically disabled people). The persecution of Jews was most prominent:

• A boycott of Jewish businesses was ordered in 1933.
• The Nuremberg Laws, prohibiting interracial marriages and excluding Jews from German citizenship, were enacted in 1935.
• From 1938, Jews were forced to wear a Jewish identity badge.

After 1933, concentration camps were created to imprison socialists, communists, democrats, and, above all, Jews. They were forced to carry out hard labor, and many were exterminated.

Economic Policy: Autarky and Rearmament

The Third Reich wanted a revival that would make Germany a world economic power, prepared to face France and Britain in a war considered inevitable. Nazi economic policy focused heavily on Hitler's militaristic and expansionist projects.

The Nazi state exercised strong economic interventionism in order to achieve economic self-sufficiency (Autarky) and depend less on countries abroad. Priority was given to heavy industry, especially the arms industry, which developed enormously. To deal with unemployment, an ambitious public works program was carried out, and numerous motorways and other infrastructure were built.

Expansionist Policy and Lebensraum

Hitler related the concept of racial superiority to his desire to establish a new order in Europe under German domination. His expansionist ambitions required a powerful army, and Hitler established a military policy:

• He strengthened the army with the introduction of military service.
• He created a new army, the Wehrmacht, and a modern air force, the Luftwaffe.

With a powerful army and a war-oriented economy, Hitler felt ready to embark on the construction of a great empire and the conquest of a 'living space' (Lebensraum) in Eastern Europe. The road to the Second World War was paved.

Indoctrination and Public Support

Nazism devoted great efforts to shaping and indoctrinating the population, especially young people, who joined the Hitler Youth. Propaganda and fear, combined with the appeal of Hitler's project—which exalted the greatness of Germany, the pride of the race, and a future of progress—secured the support of the people, many of whom did not fully understand the methods used by the Nazis. All this allowed Nazism to present itself to the world as an uncontested regime with massive public support.