German Enlightenment: History, Society, and Philosophy

Historical and Sociocultural Context of the Enlightenment in Germany

Kant, one of the most important figures of the 18th century, along with the American and French Revolutions, defined the Enlightenment as the mental attitude by which man decides to leave his self-imposed immaturity, using his reason without the guidance of another. The Encyclopedia was a key work of this period.

The German Enlightenment

The German Enlightenment had its peculiarities. There was an increase in population and a relative improvement in the economy (higher agricultural yields and the inception of industry). Germany was divided into small states with an almost feudal structure (nobility, bourgeoisie, peasants).

The state of Prussia stood out. After economic and military reforms under Frederick the Great, it became one of the major European powers. Frederick II, admired by Kant, was one of the best representatives of enlightened despotism: he protected intellectuals like Voltaire and encouraged culture.

In science, there was a great influence of Newton. Prominent figures included Euler in mathematics, Herschel in astronomy (discoverer of Uranus), and Fahrenheit (inventor of the mercury thermometer).

Philosophical Framework of the German Enlightenment

In religion, there were three main streams:

• Deism: Belief in God, but with an emphasis on reason and natural law.
• Mysticism of theosophists.
• Pietism: A religious movement influenced by Lutheranism and English Puritanism. It emphasized a direct union with God, beyond dogmas, and the idea that the world could be Christianized through the practice of individual believers. The church was seen as an invisible entity that is part of society.

Thinkers in Germany were very influenced by Pietism, which based its religion on reflection and the practice of virtue, and the occult visionary ideas of Swedenborg.

The conservative nature of society meant that German Enlightenment thinkers hardly dealt with social and political issues. Popular thinkers analyzed educational or aesthetic problems, and others, like Kant, were university professors.

Dominant Philosophical Schools

• Dogmatic Rationalism: Prevailed in universities, championed by Wolff. It held that valid knowledge is based on innate ideas and defended metaphysics as independent knowledge about the soul, God, and the world.
• Empiricism: With Hume's influence in Germany, empiricism gained ground. It posited that knowledge is grounded in experience, thus rejecting metaphysics.
• Pre-Romantic Movement: Known as Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress), it was represented in philosophy by Hamann and Herder, and in literature by Schiller and Goethe. It claimed the power of passion against abstract reason.