Fundamentals of Linguistics: Meaning, Registers, and Text Structure

Semantic Meaning Relations

These relations define how the meanings of words interact:

• Antonymy: Words with opposite meanings.
• Synonymy: Words with equal or very similar meanings.
• Polysemy: A single word having multiple related meanings.
• Hyperonymy/Hyponymy: A hierarchical relationship (e.g., vehicle is the hyperonym of car).
• Homonymy: Words that share the same form (spelling or pronunciation) but have distinct, unrelated meanings (e.g., hard (adjective) and hard (adverb)).
• Homophony: Words that sound the same but are spelled differently (e.g., to, too, two).
• Homography: Words that are spelled the same but are pronounced differently (e.g., read (present) vs. read (past)).
• Paronymy: Words that are similar in sound and spelling but have different meanings (e.g., affect, effect).

Linguistic Variation and Registers

Linguistic variation depends on two primary factors:

1. The User (Dialects): Variation based on the speaker's background. Dialects are classified as:
   • Historical (Diachronic)
   • Geographic (Regional)
   • Social (Sociolects)
2. The Use (Registers/Styles): Variation based on the communicative function (register). Registers are determined by elements such as theme, channel, formality, and intent (subjective or objective).

Levels of Register Formality

Registers notify us of the degree of formality, ranging from high to low:

• Cultivated/Formal Register: Used in specialized domains (scientific, technical, literary, legal, humanistic).
• Standard Register: Used in administrative or advertising contexts.
• Colloquial Register: Everyday language.
• Familiar and Vulgar Register: Highly informal or non-standard language.

Major Text Types

Expository Text (Explicative)

The primary function is objective explanation. The language used is typically clear, precise, and often includes technical terminology. It usually follows a tripartite structure (introduction, development, body) but may not feature a strong, persuasive conclusion. Examples include treaties, textbooks, and dictionaries.

Argumentative Text

The primary function is subjective persuasion, aiming to convince the reader. This text type uses highly personal language, often employing traditional expressions and stylistic figures.

Structure of Argumentative Text

The structure typically includes:

• Thesis (the main point)
• Arguments and Counterarguments
• Conclusion (where the thesis is defended or reaffirmed)

Examples include opinion articles, essays, and critical reviews.

Deductive Analysis

A method of reasoning that moves from the general principle or hypothesis to the particular instance.

Essential Textual Properties

Adequacy (Pragmatics)

Adequacy refers to the text's appropriateness based on the communicative context. This involves considering the receiver, the sender, the spatial or temporal location, and the overall purpose of the communication.

Coherence (Semantic Structure)

Coherence ensures the logical selection and structure of information, making sure the text flows semantically and presents sufficient, orderly information, advancing new ideas progressively.

Rules of Coherence

• Progression: The text must advance by introducing new information.
• Repetition: Important information may be repeated to maintain thematic focus.
• Non-Contradiction: The text must be logically consistent.
• Relevance (Value): The content must relate meaningfully to the represented world or topic.

Cohesion (Syntactic and Semantic Links)

Cohesion refers to the syntactic and semantic bonds within the text.

Cohesion Resources

• Reference: Anaphora, Deixis, Cataphora.
• Connectors: (See detailed list below).

Correction (Grammar and Style)

A correct text must be free of errors in spelling, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Furthermore, stylistic correction ensures the text is not monotonous, uses appropriate expressions, and is well-presented (e.g., margins and formatting).

Discourse Connectors (Markers)

Connectors are essential for linking ideas and structuring the text.

Additive Connectors (Adding New Information)

• Continuity: and then, furthermore, moreover, then.
• Specialization: but even more so.
• Distribution: on the one hand... on the other hand, firstly... finally, to begin with... in the end.
• Digression: by the way, on purpose.
• Generalization: in general, generally.
• Specification: in particular, especially, specifically, particularly.
• Amplification: in effect, in fact, certainly.
• Comparison/Equivalence: in the same way, similarly, likewise, also, parallelly.

Reformulating Connectors

• Paraphrastic Reformulation: that is, that is to say, in other words, put another way.
• Non-Periphrastic Reformulation: more exactly, rather, better yet.
• Exemplification: for example, in this example, if we consider X.
• Summary: in short, in synthesis, to sum up, in total.

Contrastive Connectors

• Opposition: nevertheless, however, now (used contrastively), unless otherwise.
• Constraint/Restriction: if not, at least.
• Concession: despite this, however, and despite everything, even so, but.
• Refutation: on the contrary, otherwise.
• Verification/Emphasis: in reality, indeed, in fact, upon closer consideration.

Consecutive Connectors

• Consequence/Result: therefore, so, consequently, as a result.

Clitic Pronoun Substitution (Grammatical Functions)

This section outlines the substitution of grammatical functions using clitic pronouns (common in Romance languages):

• Direct Object (DO): Substituted by el, la, los, las (definite forms) or en (partitive/genitive).
• Indirect Object (IO): Substituted by li (singular) or els/les (plural).
• Verbal Complement (CRV/Prepositional Object): Substituted by hi (often translated as 'there' or 'it').
• Adverbial Complement (CC): Substituted by hi ('there').
• Attribute/Predicative Complement: Substituted by ho ('it') or hi ('there').

Linguistic Varieties Revisited

Varieties are classified as: Historical and generational, social, and geographical.